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SEYMOUR EAT< 











LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Shelf ._.£_:L. 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 




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Every=day Educator 

A MANUAL OF 

SELF=INSTRUCTION 

And Useful Information 

BY 

/ 
SEYMOUR EATON 

rrincipal of Boston Home College 



Author of "One Hundred Lessons in Business," ''The New 
Arithmetic," " Practical Grammar," " Manual of Corres- 
pondence," " Easy Problems for Young Thinkers," 
"Common-sense Exercise in Geography," 
" Civil Service Help Manual," 
"Lessons in Electricity," 
Etc., Etc. 




QEG 892 ) 

W. p. BULLARD & CO., Publishers * * 

178 Devonshire St., Boston, Mass. 
1892 



I 






THE LIBRART? 
OF CONGRESS 

WASHINGTON 



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Copyright 1892, by Seymour Eaton 




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HINTS FOR HOME STUDENTS. 

There is no royal road to learning. M«)ney 
cannot buy an education. The boy born on the farm 
in the backwoods has an equal chance with the boy 
born in the city mansion. The largest benefit comes 
from the surmounting of difficulties. We learn to 
climb mountains only by climbing them. One boy 
may have ten times as many opportunities of gathering 
information as another, but information is not 
education. Growing minds are measured by the 
number of original ideas which they produce rather 
than by the quantity of facts which they contain. 

Every educated man is, in some sense, self- 
educated. No teacher, whatever his abilities may 
be, can force an education upon an unwilling pupil; 
neither can any teacher educate a persistently idle 
pupil. The boy who has a love for study will die an 
educated man, no matter what the obstacles in his way. 
Read the life of Franklin, or of Webster, or of Lincoln, 
or of Garfield. These men were great in spite of early 
difficulties, and they owe their greatness largely to the 
fact that they had the snap, and persistence, and 
ambition to succeed. Almost any boy can do as 
much if he will add to his brain the necessary grit 
and perseverance. 

Educated labor is always in demand. The men 
who are doing the longest day's work for the smallest 
daily wages, who are the slaves of their employers, 
are the uneducated. They don't know how to do any- 
thing else, and must do this one thing or starve. Ten 
or twenty years ago they spent their evening hours on 
packing boxes at the street corners, instead of learning 
then what they could have drawn wages for daily dur- 
ing after years. The educated mechanic is the master 
mechanic, and commands the highest salary. The 

7 



HOW TO EDUCATE YOURSELF. 



"foreman " knows more than you do and draws a 
heavier envelope. 

Emerson said once that it did not matter so much 
what you study as "with vrhom you study. This 
is true in a certain sense. If you read the Ufe, and 
speeches, and letters of Lincoln and gather inspiration 
from them, you are really studying with Lincoln. 
Better get inspiration from a book, or a child, or a 
flower than a knowledge of Geometry or of Latin from 
the best teacher you ever knew. Inspiration is the 
germ. It is the longing desire to know more rather 
than the appreciation of what you already know. 

Begin by choosing a subject which you think 
you "would like. An error here is always serious, 
and sometimes leads to the abandonment of all effort 
in despair. Some one has said of the public schools 
that they spend three-fourths of the time putting into 
more complicated shape, things which the children 
know perfectly well already. There is no doubt about 
the fact that there is a great deal of time consumed on 
useless information which is forgotten before the books 
have had time to gather dust. The home-student has 
limited time and must use every moment to the best 
advantage. All knowledge is not equally profitable. 
The man whose education must be a partial one at 
best, should aim to make it embrace such subjects as 
will best serve his purposes. The object most com- 
monly sought is practical utility. We study 
because learning and the intellectual culture it brings 
have a market value ; because educated men can 
make money more readily and more surely than 
uneducated men can; because our education will 
open up to us more agreeable business pursuits than 
untaught men can follow. Never, however, lose sight 
of the higher purpose of education, which is 
nothing short of the development and growth of God 
in man. 

Never before were so many advantages in the 
way of public libraries, reading clubs, literary societies, 
home-study colleges, and the best of periodicals, as 
at the present time. The boy or girl who grows 
up uneducated must not hold school, or teacher, or 
parent, or circumstances, wholly accountable. 
" Where there is a will there is a way. " 




WHAT THEY SAY OF SUCCESS. 

Gladstone. — What is really wanted is to light 
up the spirit that is within a boy. In some sense and 
in some effectual degree, there is in every boy the 
material of good work in the world; in every boy, not 
only in those who are brilliant, not only in those who 
are quick, but in those who are solid, and even in those 
who are dull. 

Henry Ward Beecher. — It is not work that 
kills men; it is worry. Work is healthy; you can 
hardly put more upon a man than he can bear. 
Worry is rust upon the blade. It is not the revolu- 
tion that destroys the machinery, but the friction. 

w Benjamin Franklin. — Let all your things have 
their places ; let each part of your business have its 
time. Resolve to perform what you ought; perform 
without fail, what you resolve. Lose no time; be 
always employed in something useful. 

E. P. Roe. — The boy who resolves to do one 
thing honorably and thoroughly, and sets about it at 
once, will attain usefulness and eminence. 

Sir Walter Scott. — Jock, when ye hae naething 
else to do, ye may be aye sticking in a tree; it will be 
growing, Jock, when ye're sleeping. 

Charles Dickens. — Do all the good you can, 
and make as little fuss about it as possible. 

Noah Porter. — Energy, invincible determination,, 
with a right motive, are the levers that move the 
world. 

Bishop Vincent. — An entire surrender of im- 
pulse and inclination to the demands of duty, as ex- 
pressed and made possible in the life of Christ, is the 
great secret of true success. 

Hon. Andre-w D. White. — There are four con- 
ditions of success : first, soundness of mind and 
heart; second, clear judgment; third, fair knowledge 
of men; fourth, great devotion to some one purpose 
or study, but with breadth of view. 

Wanamaker. — The four steps to success are : 
close application; integrity; attention to details; and 
discreet advertising. 



OPINIONS OF SUCCESSFUL MEN. 



Carlyle. — To one man who can stand prosperity, 
there are a hundred that will stand adversity. 

Andrew Carnegie. — Young educated men have 
one important advantage over the apprenticed 
mechanic — they are open-minded and without preju- 
dice. The scientific attitude of mind, that of the 
searcher after truth, renders them receptive of new 
ideas. Let no one, therefore, under-rate the advan- 
tage of education; only it must be education adapted 
to the end in view. Real ability, the capacity for 
doing things, never was so eagerly searched for as 
now, and never commanded such rewards. No man 
can keep another down. 

Edison. — When you set out to do anything, never 
let anything disturb you from doing that one thing. 
This power of putting the thought on one particular 
thing, and keeping it there for hours at a time, takes 
practice ; and it takes a long time to get into the habit. 

Samuel Johnson. — Money and time are the 
heaviest burdens of life ; and the unhappiest of all 
mortals are those who have more of either than they 
know how to use. 

Longf ellovr. — Many men do not allow their 
principles to take root, but pull them up, every now 
and then, as children do flowers they have planted, to 
see if they are growing. 

Maoaulay. — The world generally gives its admira- 
tion, not to the man who does what nobody else ever 
attempts to do, but to the man who does best what 
multitudes do well. 

Lincoln. — Let us have faith that right makes 
might; and in that faith let us, to the end, dare to do 
our duty, as we understand it. 

Wilbur F. Crafts. — Whether a boy is from farm 
or city, rich or poor, weak or strong, talented or not, 
will and work are sure to win. Wishes fail, but wills 
prevail. Labor is luck. 

Garfield. — Poverty is uncomfortable, as I can 
testify; but nine times out of ten the best thing that 
can happen to a young man is to be tossed overboard, 
and compelled to sink or swim for himself. In all my 
acquaintance I never knew a man to be drowned who 
was worth the saving. 

Huxley. — A somewhat varied experience of men 
has led me, the longer I live, to set the less value on 
mere cleverness ; to attach more and more importance 
to industry and physical endurance. 




SLIPS OF TONGUE AND PEN. 

Plurals. Be careful in writing such plurals as 
moneys, journeys, valleys, chimneys, turkeys, negroes, 
calicoes, buffaloes, sons-in-law, solos, twos, quartos, 
step-sons. 

Verbs and number. Follow plural subjects with 
plural verbs ; as, we were, not we was ; you were, not 
you was ; they are, not they is ; they were, not they 
was; they have, not they has; they write, not they 
writes ; the men are, not is ; the children were, not was ; 
the boys have, not has; my sisters write, not writes; 
these are the boys who were at school. Jennie and 
Annie were schoolmates. 

To do ; to see. These two verbs give considerable 
trouble. Their principal forms are, do, did, done, and 
see, saw, seen. The second forms, did and saw, should 
never follow is, are, was, were, have, ha?, or had. The 
third forms, done and seen, should always follow one of 
these words expressed or understood; as, I did the 
work, or I have done the work, or the work is done. I 
saw the picture, or I have seen the picture, or the pic- 
ture was seen. 

Verbs in general. The rules given for to do and 
to see apply alike to all verbs. Such expressions as have 
came, has sang, was drove, have broke, have began, have 
knew, is froze, have gave, knowed, has went, has give, has 
rang, have ran, were took, has stole, throwed, have mistook, 
etc., are gross errors and should be avoided. 

Possessives. The possessive of nouns, both sin- 
gular and plural, is formed by adding an apostrophe 
and "s " ('s) ; as, The man's hat is on the table. The 
children's play-ground is behind the house. When a 
plural noun ends in "s," only the apostrophe (') is 
added; as, The pupils' lessons should be explained. 
Birds'* nests attract boys. The apostrophe is never 
used in forming the possessive of pronouns. 

I, me, he, him, she, her. Many persons continu- 
ally make mistakes in conversation and in correspond- 
ence in the use of these words. The following are 
examples : Let you and /go; say, me. He is as good 
as me ; say, /. She is as tall as him ; say, he. You are 
older than me ; say, /. Nobody said so but he ; say, but 
him. John went out with James and /; say, and me. 



COMMON BLUNDERS CORRECTED. 



You are stronger than him ; say, than he. Between 
you and /; say, you and me. He gave it to John and 
/_; say, and me. Your brother was with Mrs. Brown 
and // say, and me. He sat between him and I ; 
say, me. Me and him can carry it; say, he and /. Her 
and her sister are coming; say, she and her sister. Her 
and him are the same age ; say, she and he. Was it 
her ; say, she. If I was him, ; say, were he. 

We, us, they, them, Tvho, -whom. Errors in the 
use of these pronouns are frequent. Us boys enjoy the 
holidays; say, we boys. Who is it for? say, whom,. 
Was it them? say, they. Who did he choose; say,, 
whom. Who did the mischief? Them ; 2>2l^^ they. Be. 
careful who you trust ; say, whom. 

Comparison. Do not use the superlative degree 
where only two things are compared ; as, he is the best 
of the two; say, better, Jennie is the eldest of my two 
sisters; say, elder. Avoid double comparatives and 
double superlatives ; as, A more healthier location cannot 
be found; say, more healthy. He took the most 
pleasantest route ; say, m.ost pleasant, or pleasanter. 

Negatives. Do not use two negative words so 
that they shall contradict each other ; as, He didn't do 
nothing ; say, did nothing, or didn^t do anything. He is 
not there, I don''t think ; say, I think. 

Adverbs. Do not use adverbs for adjectives, nor 
adjectives for adverbs; as, The river rises rapid ; say, 
rapidly. He does his work slow ; say, slowly. She 
looks charming, not charmingly ; I feel bad over it, 
not badly. He did his work well, not good. 

Prepositions. The needless insertion of a prepo- 
sition is to be avoided , as, In what latitude is Boston 
in ? Care must be taken to connect prepositions with 
appropriate verbs and nouns; as. This book is different 
to that ; S2iy,from that. I was followed with a crowd; 
say, by a crowd. He is angry at his father ; say, with 
his father. 

Collective Nouns. When the idea of unity is 
prominent, collective nouns take singular verbs; as, 
The fleet was under orders to sail. There was a large 
crowd in the buildmg. Your committee begs leave to 
report. When the idea of plurality is prominent, 
collective nouns take plural verbs; as, The public <a;r^ 
requested to be present. 

Shall, Tvill. Will expresses the will or pleasure of 
its own subject. Shall subordinates the will of its 
subject to that of the speaker. "We will go," means 
"we are willing to go." "We shall go," means "we 
have decided upon going." Never say " Will I do so 



COMMON BLUNDERS CORRECTED. 



and so?" The literal meaning of such an expression 
would be, "Am I willing to do, etc." Remember that 
will always expresses willingitess rather than futurity 
when it has a personal significance. 

Similar tense forms. ZzV, lay^ lain; lay, laid laid; 
sity saty sat ; fiee, Jle defied ; Jly^flew fioivn ; flow, flowed , 
Jlowed ; rise, rose, risen ; raise, raised, raised. His room- 
mate lies in bed until noon. The apples lay on the 
ground all winter. He has laiji on the floor since 
morning. He laid the book on the table. I have sat 
here for more than an hour. She set her pitcher on the 
ground. They will flee from the plague. The river 
-has overflowed its banks. John raised the flag. 

ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED. 

Administer. Blows are dealt. Medicine is administered. 
Afraid. Say 1/ear it will rain, not I am afraid. 
Agriculturist. Not agriculturalist. 
Alike. Do not couple this word with both. 
All over. Over all the country, not all over the country. 
Allow. Do not say, " He allows he will do it." 
Alone. Distinguish this word from only. 
Amateur. Not necessarily a beginner. 
And. Say try z?<? go, not try «i^^ go. 
Angry. Say angry with a person and at a thing. 
Answer. Answer questions ; reply to assertions. 
Anticipate. Distinguish from expect. 
As. Say not that I know, instead of not as I know. 
At all. Superfluous in " any at all.^^ 

Atheneum. Pronounce ath-eh-7iee-uni. Accent 3d syllable. 
Asphalt. Pronounce ess-fahlt, not ash-fault. 
Awful. A thing cannot be awful pretty. 
Balance. Not to be used for rest or remainder. 
Beautifully. Looked beaut ful, not beautiftdly . 
Beg. Say " I beg have to acknowledge." 
Belongs to. Do not use for is a member of. 
Between. Between two ; among more than two. 
Blacking. This word is not blackening. 
Brakeman. Not brakesman. 
Certain. Distinguish from sure. 
Character. Distinguish from reptitation. 
Deal. Great deal., not good deal. 
Die with. Persons die of, not xvith disease. 
Disremember. ^2.^ forget. 
Don't. Say he doesn't sing, not he don't sing. 
Either. Means the one or the other of two. 
Either alternative. Alternative means choice. 
Equally well. Do not say equally as well, 
Every. Followed by a verb in the singular. 

13 



COMMON BLUNDERS CORRECTED. 



Expect. Refers to future time. 
Fix. Incorrectly used for arrange ox prepare. 
Folk. Folk implies plurality as well ^^■s, folks. 
Gent. Never use this contraction oi gentlemen. 
Good. *' It looks ^<?^^." ^diy well. 
Got. Omit got in " I hz.Ye got a dollar." 
Grdnary. There is no such word as grainary. 
Guess. Do not use this word for suppose. 
Had have. Never use together. 
Hardly. Do not use with donH and canH. 
Healthy. Distinguish from wholeso-me. 
Hundred. Use the singular form with numerals. 
Idea. This word is not idea-r. 
Just. Incorrect in the sense of now. 
Learn. To receive instruction. See teach. 
Less. Relates to quantity ; fewer to number. 
Loan. Lend is considered a better word. 
May. Distinguish from can. 
Near. Do not use in the sense of nearly. 
New. "A pair of new boots " ; not *' a new pair.' 
Nice. Think twice before using this word. 
None. Contraction of no one^ takes singular. 
One. Followed by one., and not by be. 
Otherwise than. Not otherwise but. 
Party. Do not use this word ior person. 
Perpetual. Distinguish from continual. 
Portion. Often incorrectly used for part. 
Portion. A portion is a part set aside. 
Posted. Do not use instead of informed. 
Prevalent. Distinguish irora prevailing . 
Promise. T)\s\.mg\x\sh.irom. assure. 
Propose. Distinguish from /2<:^/<?5^. 
Prudence. Distinguish from discretion. 
Quantity. Things measured or weighed. 
Real. The adverb is really ; as, really good. 
Remember. Distinguish from recollect. 
Returned back. The prefix re means back. 
Seem. Distinguish from appear. 
Settle. To settle does not mean Xopay. 
Shampoo. Not shampoon. Shampooing. 
So, such. So long journeys, not such long. 
Some better. '^2.^ somewhat \)^\X^x. 
Splendid. Splendid things glitter. 
Stop. We stay at a certain hotel, not stop. 
Streamlet. Do not use with little. 
Summon. Summon is a verb, sum,ntons a noun. 
Teach. To give instruction. S^e. learn. 
Those kind. Say that kind. Kind is singular. 
Transpire. Do not use for to happen. 
Try. We make an experiment, not /ry. 
Vacation. Distinguish from vocation, 
"Widow woman. Woman is here superfluous. 
"Without. Do not use without for unless. 
Year-old. A two-year-old coXi, not a two-years. 
Yours. Never close letters with ^^Yours^ etc.^^ 



H 







on PDBup^Mm^^. 
jW\eSPEAKINg 



Success is made up of a good deal more of hard 
work, and very much less of talent than most people 
suppose. 

The main essentials are perseverance, a capacity 
for patient study, and common sense. Intelligent 
practice can work wonders. Your friend who plays so 
brilliantly, drummed away for months at five-finger 
exercises. 

There are other essential qualifications — clear- 
ness of utterance, deliberation of manner, and repose 
of mein. The hurried man will stammer. The nerv- 
ous man will flounder in his talk. The unready man 
will "hum " and " haw " until he becomes a bore to his- 
audience. 

A chart of the windpipe is of no more value to the- 
public speaker than a picture of a bag-pipe is to the 
opera-singer. He has no use for the physiology of 
the voice. It is quite immaterial to him whether his 
voice is produced by the larynx or the calf of the leg. 
A bad voice is a bad habit, to be got rid of just as any 
other bad habit is to be got rid of, by turning the will 
upon it. 

It is impossible to overestimate the importance of 
a good, trustworthy, uniform articulation to the 
public speaker. He can have no more useful form of 
ability than audibility. Distinctness is vital. Indis- 
tinctness is fatal. The whisper of a good speaker 
penetrates everywhere. 

Some minds -work best, most effectively, and 
expeditiously in and by the act of public speaking.. 
Such men are public thinkers as distinguished from 
closet thinkers. As some cannot think or express- 
their thoughts except in the seclusion of the study, so 
some are unable to think out their thoughts unless- 
they speak them out. 

There is no better exercise than the physical 



HINTS ON PUBLIC SPEAKING. 



earnestness of public speaking. It is as good for the 
liver as horseback riding. A pulpit sweat is better 
than a Turkish bath. 

He is a rare speaker who knows how to hit the pur- 
pose of the occasion in a brief speech. The best of 
orators and advocates fail here. Any one might make 
the ten-minute speech if he were allowed ten minutes 
in which to get under way. 

Always stick to the advertised topic. Never 
rub the audience the wrong way, unless indeed you 
have a case to argue with it, or an appeal to make for 
an unpopular cause. 

The value of a vigorous, flexible, mellow baritone 
for public speaking cannot be over-estimated. It 
is a richly paying investment. It covers a multitude 
of minor sins. It compensates somewhat for de- 
ficiencies in rhetoric and thought. There is health, 
and dignity and character in it. 

There are several distinct types of eloquence: 
First, the fluent. The speech falls from the lips with 
no apparent effort. We are impressed with the mar- 
vellous flow of language. Second, the poetic. A 
style full of imagery, frequent contrasts and striking 
comparisons, in which nature contributes to the rhythm 
of the address. Third, the epigrammatic. Much 
truth compressed into short sentences. The kernel 
without the husk. The gold, with dross refined away. 
Fourth, the scholarly. Full of w^ell rounded sen- 
tences, and abounding in rare words. Fifth, the 
logical. Arranged orderly, each sentence suggesting 
the one which is to follow, and leaning back upon the 
one preceding. Easily remembered, because the un- 
conscious reasoning of the mind has been assisted by 
the speaker. Sixth, the persuasive. Depends 
largely upon the manner of the speaker. His voice 
and eyes and posture add to his words. It is the 
style of deep feeling and intense passion. 

The most popular speakers are those who 
simply suggest bright ideas or thoughts, leaving the 
entire development to the pleasure of the audience. 

t6 




EVERY-DNY 

lEOCRAPHY 



The earth is a great round ball, 25,000 miles in cir- 
cumference and 8,000 miles in diameter. It turns on 
one of its diameters once in every 24 hours, and com- 
pletes a circuit of the sun in one year. The daily mo- 
tion causes day and night. The diameter around 
which the earth spins is not upright but leans about . 
23-I degrees. This slanting position, together with the 
annual motion around the sun causes the seasozis. 
In our summer the north pole is turned towards the 
sun, and in winter the south pole is turned towards the 
sun. See the illustrations on the next page. 

The middle day in spring is the 2 2d of March. 
Then the day and night are each twelve hours long. 
The middle day in summer is the 22d of June, when 
the days are the longest. The day is shortest on the 
22d of December. On the 22d of September 
the days and nights are equal. 

The equator is an imaginary line passing around 
the earth at equal distances from the poles. Distance 
north or south of the equator is called latitude. We 
may say that a particular wreck occurred in north 
latitude 43°. The distance east or west from a first 
meridian is called longitude. A meridian is a cir- 
cumference line passing through the poles. The first 
meridian from which longitude is usually reckoned 
passes through Greenwich, near London, England. 

The atmosphere, though greatly rarefied, must 
exist to a height of from 100 to 200 miles. Water 
vapor is always present in the atmosphere. In ex- 
tremely cold air its quantity is very minute, but in hot 
air it may form one thirtieth part of the whole. Car- 
bonic acid is also present in the air. It is given off 
to the atmosphere in the breath of animals, by the 
decay of vegetable matter, and by the combustion of 
fuel. Plants are largely composed of carbon, which 
they obtain from the carbonic acid of the air, and thus 
^7 



EVERY-DAY GEOGRAPHY. 



prevent its undue accumulation. The principal ingre- 
dients are oxygen and nitrogen. A cubic foot of 
air weighs about i J ounces. The air is most dense at 
the sea-level, and becomes less dense as we climb 
mountains. 

The power of the atmosphere to absorb and hold the 
direct and radiated heat of the sun makes our earth 
sufficiently warm to support life. Without this 
property of the atmosphere, the temperature of the 



earth would, even under the direct rays of a tropical 
sun, never be greater than about 300° below zero. 
The solar rays does not penetrate deeply into the solid 
land, but it affects water to a depth of about 500 feet. 
The atmosphere obtains its moisture from the 
water surface of the earth by the process of evapora- 
tion. Warm air can hold more water-vapor than cool 
air. When air at any given temperature contains all 
the vapor it can hold, it is said to be saturated. When 
saturated air is cooled, it can no longer hold all its 
vapor ; a portion of it, therefore, condenses and falls 
as rain or snow. Mist consists of a vast multitude of 
minute globules of water in the air near the earth's sur- 
face. It is usually caused by the sudden cooling of 
saturated air. Clouds are merely fogs formed at 
some distance above the earth's surface. The mean 
elevation of clouds in the temperate zones is about 
one-half a mile, while the highest clouds ever seen are' 
probably within ten miles of the earth's surface. 
Clouds stop much of the sun's heat, and so prevent 
the earth from becoming too hot during the day- 



EVERY-DAY GEOGRAPHY. 



time ; while, by- 
absorbing and 
radiating back a 
portion of the 
heatwhichiscon- 
stantly stream- 
ing off from the 
earth, they pre- 
sent its surface 
from becoming 
too cold at night. 
This is the rea- 
son why cloudy 
days are gener- 
ally cooler, but 
cloudy nights 
warmer than fair 
ones. Dew dif- 
fers from fog or 
cloud in being 
little globules of 
water condensed 
from the atmos- 
pheric vapor 
upon cool, solid 
bodies which 
have chilled the 
adjacent air be- 
low its point of 
saturation. 
The oceans form three-fourths of the earth's sur- 
face. The accompanying diagrams illustrate the pro- 
portions of land and water very nicely. The greatest 
width of the Pacific ocean is about 10,000, and of the 
Atlantic, about 3,600 miles. The average depth of 
the sea is about 2 J miles. There are places where the 
depth is much greater. The greatest depressions are 
about as far below, as the highest mountains are 
above the sea level. The water of the sea is so salt. 
as to be undrinkable, and were this salt dried and laid 
out over all the land on the globe, it would cover it to a. 

19 




EVERY-DAY GEOGRAPHY. 



depth of 500 feet. Sea-water, in evaporating, leaves 
all its impurities behind. Shallow water has a green- 
ish tint, while the greater depths have an intense indigo- 
blue color. Where the water is deepest and purest — 
as in the Mid-Atlantic — it is intensely black, there 
being nothing to reflect light to the eye. 

The cause of atmospheric electricity is still not very 
well known, but everyone is familiar with its manifesta- 
tions during thunder-storms, which are really a 
series of electrical discharges from cloud to cloud, or 
sometimes between clouds and the earth. The visible 
flash is called lightning. The lightning and thunder 
are produced simultaneously, but an interval of a few 
seconds usually occurs between the two phenomena 




reaching our senses, owing to the fact that sound does 
not travel so rapidly as light. 

In obedience to the laws of gravitation the sun and 
the moon each exert an attractive influence upon the 
earth. Although the sun's mass is so very much 
greater than that of the moon — being twenty-eight 



EVERY DAY GEOGRAPHY. 



million times as great — yet the effect of the tide at- 
traction of the sun is only seven-sixteenths that of the 
moon. One reason for this is that the sun is nearly 
400 times farther off than the moon. The effect of 
this attraction is seen in the ocean tides. The 
water is drawn, or pulled out, as it were, towards the 




attracting bodies. When the sun and moon are acting 
on the same side of the earth, the combined attraction 
produces the greatest possible rise of water, known as 
spring tides. When the sun and moon are pulling 
in opposite directions, neap tides are produced. 
Owing to the revolution of the earth on its axis in 24 
hours, the tidal wave travels once around the earth in 
that time. And since the tidal wave is double — there 
being two points of high water — each sea-coast has 
high tide twice a day. But as the moon revolves 
around the earth it takes 54 minutes longer for a par- 
ticular place to be brought opposite the moon again. 
Hence the tides are 54 minutes later every day. In 
the open ocean the water rises about four feet, but in 
bays and gulfs it may rise to 40 or 50 feet. 

In addition to the forward and back movement of 
the water in wind and tidal waves, each ocean is trav- 
ersed by systems of currents, or continuous move- 
ment of the water in the same direction. Several 
causes combine to produce these continuous currents ; 
the principal cause, however, is the inequality in the 
density of the water in different parts of the sea, aris- 
ing from differences in temperature and saltness. 



EVERY-DAY GEOGRAPHY. 



Take a rectangular box or pan two or three feet long and a foot 
wide. Fill it with water. In one corner place a piece of ice and 
heat the corner diagonally opposite. The water will at once begin 
to move around making a complete circuit of the box or pan. 
This experiment will illustrate the movement of the ocean waters 
from one temperature to another. 

The direction in which ocean currents flow is 
greatly modified by the rotation of the earth, the con- 
figuration of the coast and sea bottom and by prevail- 
ing winds. The great current known as the Gulf 
Stream has a wonderful influence upon the climate 
and commerce of America and Europe. The waters 
of this current have a high temperature, through having 
performed a long tropical journey across the Atlantic 
and along the coasts of South and Central America. 
In the Straits of Florida the Gulf Stream is 32 miles 
wide, and has a velocity of four miles an hour. The 
temperature here is 82°. The Gulf Stream flows 
northeast but is separated from the coast of the 
United States by a colder current from the north. 
The prevalent fogs of Newfoundland are caused by 
tke meeting of these two currents in that region. 




THE WORLD AS KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 

Were it not for the influence of this great current of 
warm water the British Isles would be as cold as 
Greenland or Labrador. 

The earth has been examined to a depth entirely 
insignificant in cofhparison with its diameter, but so 
far as it has been examined, it appears to be composed 
mainly of twelve elements. These make up ninety- 



EVERY-DAY GEOGRAPHY. 



nine one-hundredths of the earth's crust, and are* 
oxygen, silicon, aluminum, calcium, magnesium, potas- 
sium, sodium, carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, chlorine, and 
iron. Among the comparatively rare elements are all 
the useful metals, except iron. Geologists estimate 




that at least 3,000,000 years must have elapsed since 
the oldest known sedimentary rocks were deposited. 

In general, the number of all forms of life de- 
creases with the temperature and moisture of the 
climate. Thus, in the equatorial regions, where heat 
and moisture are great and continuous throughout the 
year, the luxuriance of both animal and vegetable life 
is astonishing. 

23 



^ EASY LESSONS 



^Astronomy 



To the inhabitants of the earth and to those of the 
other planets, if there be any, the sun is the most 
magnificent, as well as the most important, object in 
the universe. All the planets move in their orbits 
under the influence of its attraction, and from its rays 
is derived the energy which produces almost every 
form of motion on their surfaces. Yet the sun is but 
one of the countless stars of the vast universe. It is 
probable that each fixed star is really a sun, and the 
centre of a separate system of planets. The nearest 
of these fixed stars is twenty billions of miles distant. 
It would take four years for the light of such a star to 
reach the earth. Sirius, the dog star, is calculated to 
be more than a million times farther away from us 
than the sun, so that light requires eighteen years to 
pass from this star to the earth. 

The sun, the ruler of our system, is the nearest 
fixed star, and lies at a mean distance from it of 
92,700,000 miles. Some idea of this distance may be 
obtained by considering that a train travelling day and 
night without stopping, at a rate of sixty miles an 
hour, would take 175 years to pass over it. The 
diameter of the sun is about 860,000 miles, or 109 
times the diameter of the earth. If a globe two feet in 
diameter represent the sun, then a pea 215 feet away 
will correctly represent the comparative size and dis- 
tance of the earth. Go out on a moonlight night and 
consider the moon's distance as it appears to us. 
Then imagine the earth to be placed inside the sun at 
centre, with the moon revolving around it as now, the 
revolutions could continue inside the sun, and yet the 
moon would not come nearer the surface of the sun 
than 190,000 miles. The density of the sun is only 
about one fourth of the density of the earth. We 
may, therefore, conclude that the sun is rather a mass 
24 








Mars 



EASY LESSONS IN ASTRONOMY. 



of vapor or gas than a solid body. At its centre, how- 
ever, owing to the effects of gravity, it must of course 
be in a very condensed state. An article which would 
weigh one pound on the earth would weigh twenty- 
seven pounds on the sun. When the sun is eclipsed 
by the moon coming between us and it, and the blind- 
ing glare of its light cut off, we see that the surface, 
which is generally apparent to us is by no means the 
boundary of the solar orb, for around the body of the 
moon there appears a bright halo or glory, which 
spreads many thousands of miles into the regions of 
space and which is evidently a part of the sun. From 
the surface, flames of fire, or illuminated gas, are seen 
to rise sometimes to heights of 100,000 miles. The 
black spots which are often visible upon the brilliant 
surface are called sun-spots. These spots are very 
irregular in shape and of every conceivable form. 
They are often of an immense size, occasionally so 
large as to be distinctly visible by the naked eye. The 
largest spot yet measured was 144,000 miles in diam- 
eter. The sun gives out as much light as 146 lime- 
lights would do if each ball of lime were as large as 
the sun and gave out light from all parts of its surface. 
It is estimated that the heat given off by the sun is 
equivalent to the burning of 12,000 billions of tons of 
coal per second. It is estimated that the tempera- 
ture of the sun's surface is 18,000° F. The sun 
weighs about 760 times as much as all the planets put 
together. It is a large subject and a very interesting 
one. 

The planets are bodies much smaller than the sun 
around which, at different distances, they revolve, and 
from which receive most of their light and heat. The 
path of a planet around the sun is called its orbit. 
The planets shine (as stars) at night by reason of the 
sunlight which is reflected from their surface, while the 
sun and the fixed stars, shine by their own light. The 
most important planets are the following : Mercury, 
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and 
Neptune. Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn 
26 



EASY LESSONS IN ASTRONOMY. 



are frequently visible from the earth as remarkably 
large and brilliant stars. Uranus is so distant as to be 
barely visible to the naked eye, and Neptune can never 
be seen without a telescope. Mercury is the nearest 
to the sun. Its year is equal to 87 days. When it is 
visible, it is either just before sunrise, or just after sun- 
set. Its lustre is very brilliant and mountains of great 
height have been observed upon its surface. Its day is 
about the same length as ours. The earth is seven- 
teen times larger than Mercury. The sun shines upon 
Mercury with about seven times the intensity that he 
does upon the earth. The atmosphere or local condi- 
tions may be such as to modify the heat. Venus is 
the next planet in distance and is nearly as large as the 
earth. It is 67 millions of miles from the sun. Its 
day is a little shorter than ours, and its year is equal to 
224 of our days. Next to the sun and moon, Venus is 
the most conspicuous of the heavenly bodies. When 
it rises before the sun it is called the morning star and 
when it sets after the sun it is called the evening star. 
Our Earth is the next planet in distance. Then 
comes Mars, 141 millions of miles from the sun. Its 
year is equal to 687 days. Its day is a little longer 
than ours. This planet presents a beautiful appear- 
ance through a telescope. The parts supposed to be 
land have a reddish tint, which gives a ruddy appear- 
ance to the whole planet. The dark portions, which 
have a greenish color, are supposed to be seas. Snow 
can be seen around its poles. The surface is often 
obscured — presumably by clouds. Mars has two 
small moons. Jupiter is by far the largest of all the 
planets of our solar system. The diameter is 88,000 
miles. Its distance from the sun is 482 millions of 
miles. Its year equals twelve of our years, and its day 
is only about ten hours. To an observer situated on 
Jupiter the sun would appear only about one-fifth of 
the diameter that he does to us on the earth. It is 
supposed to be surrounded by a very dense, cloudy 
a,tmosphere, and may yet be a heated mass, partly self- 
luminous. Jupiter is attended by five moons. The 
planet Saturn ranks next to Jupiter in size, having a 
28 



EASY LESSONS IN ASTRONOMY. 



diameter of 71,000 miles. Its distance from the sun is 
more than nine times that of the earth. Its year 
equals almost thirty of ours, and its day is about 10 
hours in length. Not only is Saturn accompanied by 
eight moons, but it is surrounded by a ring, or rather 
series of rings, which are about 10,000 miles distant 
from the planet. The total breadth of this ring system 
is about 38,000 miles, while the thickness does not 
exceed 100 miles. As they reflect the light of the sun, 
the rings and moons, as seen from the planet, must 
present a grand spectacle. Uranus is 1,780 millions 
of miles distant from the sun, and is visible to the 
naked eye as a faint star. Neptune is the most dis- 
tant planet. 

In addition to the planets there are certain other 
bodies which revolve around the sun, and which shine 
by their own light. These bodies are called comets. 
They have excited the greatest interest throughout all 
ages, by their sudden appearance, their great bril- 
liancy, and enormous size. It is said that they are as 
numerous in the heavens as fish in the ocean. Comets 
shine chiefly by reflected sunlight, though some comets 
approach the sun so closely that they become suffi- 
ciently heated to shine by their own light also. The 
tail of the comet seen in 1843 ^^^^ 112,000,000 miles in 
length. 

Thousands of small fragments of matter, possibly the debris of 
disintegrated comets, revolve around the sun. Many of them enter 
our atmosphere, in which case the friction of the air on the rushing 
fragment develops enough heat to render it luminous as a meteor 
or falling star. They are generally entirely consumed in the air, 
but sometimes a remnant of one reaches the earth's surface as a 
mass of stone and metal called an a'rolite. In no case ha\»e they 
yet revealed the existence of any element not found on the earth. 

The moon is about 240,000 miles distant from the 
earth, and is a comparatively small body, being only a 
little more than 2,000 miles in diameter. It would re- 
quire 49 moons to make one earth. The moon 
revolves around the earth from west to east (not east 
to west) in 27-J- days. As a result of the inferior size 
and mass of the moon, gravity (or weight) on its sur- 
30 



EASY LESSONS IN ASTRONOMY. 



face is only about one-sixth what it is on the earth. 
Thus, if there were inhabitants on the moon, they 
could lift six pounds as easily as we lift one, and would 
be able to toss about rocks and boulders as if they 
were bits of cork. The moon always keeps the same 
side presented to the earth. She turns once on her 
own axis in the same time that she takes to go round 
the earth. Nothing has yet been seen on its surface 
which would indicate life in any form. However we 
may account for its present condition, there is no 
doubt that the moon as a world has lived its life and is 
now dead, and remains in our heavens as a beacon to 
point to us the inevitable destiny of our own world, 
which, by reason of greater strength, is still living, but 
which must in its turn also decay and pass away. 

The nebulae are objects of the most stupendous 
proportions. They resemble great cloud patches of 
light. Were our earth and thousands and millions of 
bodies quite as big all put together, they would not be 
nearly so great as one of these nebulae. A cluster of 
stars viewed in a small telescope will often look like a 
nebula, for the rays of the stars become blended to- 
gether. A powerful telescope will, however, reveal 
the separate stars. Of all the nebulae, there are but 
two which can be seen -without a telescope — the 
nebula in the Andromeda and the Orion nebula. Mr. 
Lockyer regards nebulae as consisting of swarms of 
meteorites at a low temperature, the light proceeding 
from the glow of the gases between the meteoric 
particles. 

A luminous belt, called the galaxy or milky way, 
surrounds the heavens, nearly in a great circle, so as to 
divide the sky into two portions almost equal. It is 
seen in the telescope to be mainly composed of small 
stars. It also contains a large number of star 
clusters. 

Scientists conclude that space cannot be empty, 
but what the exact nature of this all-pervading ether is . 
they cannot at present tell. Every star which shines 
in the heavens bears unmistakable evidence of its 
existence. 

32 




r^. 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 

The difficulty of spelling — a difficulty which is felt 
even by able and well-educated persons — arises from 
the. fact that the Enp^lish language has never been in 
possession of one fixed and uniform manner of writing 
down the sounds of which it is composed. There are, 
for instance, thirteen different vowel sounds, v,iih 
more than one hundred ways of representing them to 
the eye. There is really no rem.edy for bad spelling 
except that found in hard work and accurate observa- 
tion. If you are a " bad speller," you will learn most 
rapidly by j/'o'/^^ — by noticing words in your reading 
and by an abundance of writing. Don't "waste time 
learning to spell words which you are unable to use 
correctly in your composition or correspondence. 

IMPORTANT CAUTIONS. 

Words of like sound. — Aisle, passage way; 
altar, of a church, alter, to change ; bare, uncovered, 
bear, an animal, to carry; beach, sea-shore; berth, 
sleeping-place; board, lumber, meals; bridal, relating 
to a wedding; canvass, to solicit; cellar, an under- 
ground room; cereal, grain, serial, a continued story; 
choir, singers, quire, of paper; coarse, not fine, course, 
of study, race course ; council, an assembly, counsel, 
advice; fair, beautiful, an exhibition, y^r^?, food, cost 
of transportation; gait, manner of walking, gate, an 
entrance; hair, oi the head; >^<f^/, to cure, /?^^/, of the 
foot; here, in this place, hear, to perceive by the ear; 
ivhole, complete; knczv, did know; loan, something 
lent, lone, lonely; jnail, letters ; via^itel, a shelf, mantle, 
a cloak ; pail, a, vessel, J^ale, white ; J^azr, a couple, /^are, 
to cut off, pear, fruit ; peace, rest, piece, a part ; princi- 
pal, chief, principle, rule; right, correct, just, writer 
to form words, rite, a ceremnny; route, a line of 
travel; sail, of a ship, sale, the operation of selling; 
soar, to rise high, sore, painful ; stake, an upright stick ; 
steak, a slice of meat ; stationery, writing material, etc.; 
their, belonging to them, there, in that place ; to, 
towards, too, ovennuch, tivo, one and one ; weak, 
feeble, week, seven days. 

Words that may be confounded. — Better 
look these up in your dictionary : accept, except ; 
affect (to influence), effect (to accomplish); allu- 
sion, illusion; collision, collusion; critic, critique; 



LESSONS IN SPELLING. 



dairy, diary; decease, disease; elicit, illicit; eminent, 
imminent; exaltation, exaltation; human, humane; 
insight, incite ; ordinance, ordnance ; perspective, pro- 
spective ; precede, proceed ; sanatory, sanitary ;. 
statue, statute; suit, suite. 

CONTRASTED ENDINGS. 

ay, ey — affray, array, convey, survey, obey. 
ade, aide — arcade, lemonade, persuade, afraid. 
ale, ail — female, inhale, scale, assail, curtain, frail. 
ame, aim — became, inflame, claim, proclaim. 
ane, ain — insane, profane, abstain, domain, refrain. 
aign, eign — arraign, campaign, feign, reign. 
are, air — beware, declare, affair, despair, stair. 
aze, ase — amaze, craze, glaze, phase, phrase. 
el, ell — compel, excel, propel, farewell, knell. 
ense, ence — condense, expense, commence. 
ede, eed — accede, intercede, precede, exceed. 
erne, earn — extreme, supreme, scheme, esteem. 
ene, een — convene, intervene, canteen, scene. 
ine, ean — chlorine, gelatine, machine, clean. 
ere, eer — interfere, persevere, career, domineer. 
ear, ier — appear, arrear, cashier, financier. 
ease, eace — cease, decrease, grease, increase,, 
peace. 

ete, eet — athlete, compete, secrete, discreet. 
eat, eit — defeat, entreat, conceit, deceit. 
ieve, eive — achieve, believe, thieve, deceive. 
ise, ice — concise, paradise, advice, twice. 
age, ege — average, marriage, privilege, college. 
al — carnival, criminal, disposal, final, legal, rival. 
el — angel, cancel, chisel, gospel, parcel, travel. 
le — angle, candle, couple, disciple, gentle, trouble.. 
able — abominable, acceptable, admirable. 
ible — audible, contemptible, eligible, responsible. 
cal, cle — critical, medical, miracle, obstacle. 
cial, tial — beneficial, provincial, essential, partial. 
ine, ain — determine, famine, imagine, certain. 
ian, ion — civilian, guardian, historian, champion. 
cian, sion — electrician, politician, excursion. 
ar, er — beggar, circular, pillar, prisoner, milliner. 
or, re — author, bachelor, lustre, massacre. 
cious, tious — atrocious, cautious, ambitious. 
ance — acceptance, ambulance, balance, grievance. 
ence — audience, condolence, conference. 
ant — abundant, assailant, assistant, defendant. 
ent — apparent, competent, correspondent. 
cy> sy — agency, delicacy, juicy, leprosy, gypsy. 
ary — arbitrary, boundary, customary, honorary. 
ery — artillery, celery, cemetery, gallery, machinery.. 
city, sity — audacity, capacity, adversity, curiosity. 

34 



LESSONS IN SPELLING. 



TEN GOOD SPELLING RULES. 

Note. — Exceptions are in brackets. 

1 . An accent on a single final consonant 
doubles it. Bar, barring; chat, chatting, drum, 
drummer ; clan, clannish ; plot, plotting ; compel, 
compelling; permit, permitted; refer, referred; (gas). 

2. An unaccented final consonant is not 
doubled. Bigot, bigoted; benefit, benefited; de- 
velop, developed ; (worship). 

3. A single 1 is doubled before a vcwel- 
suffix. Cancel, cancelled ; duel, duelling ; label, 
labelled; (parallel). 

4. Pinal e is dropped before a voweL 

Blame, blamable ; excite, excitable ; move, movable ;, 
value, valuable ; (words ending in ce and ge^ as change,, 
changeable. (Words ending in ee^ oe, ye^ retain the e 
before ing^ as shoe, shoeing.) 

5. "Words ending in ey, oy, or ay add s for 
plural. Alleys, chimneys, moneys, journeys, turkeys. 

6. Double 1 loses one 1 -when compounded. 

Dull, dulness; fill, fulfil; full, skilful; roll, enrol; 
wilful. (Several exceptions, such as farewell, down- 
fall, illness.) 

7. Write ie, if pronounced e, except after c. 

Believe, brief, grief, mischief, ceiling, conceit, per- 
ceive, thieve, reprieve, yield. 

8. The prefixes dis and mis are never diss 
and miss. Disband, disinherit, dis-suade, mis- 
behave, misinform. 

9. Adjectives ending in ble make nouns in 
bility. Amiable, amiability; possible, possibility; 
liable, liability. 

10. Adjectives ending in ate make nouns in 
acy. Accurate, accuracy; delicate, delicacy; obstin- 
ate, obstinacy. 

35 



LESSONS IN SPELLING. 



TWO HUNDRED DIFFICULT WORDS. 

Abridgment, accumulate, acquiesce, address, admis- 
sible, aeronaut, affability, aggravate, agreeable, 
amanuensis, ambassador, anonymous, apostasy, appall- 
ing, armament, artificial, assassin, atheism, aviary, 
bankruptcy, bargain, barometer, barricade, bazaar,, 
believe, business, bouquet, bronchitis, cabinet, calen- 
dar, cancelled, capability, caricature, catarrh, celery, 
chieftain, cigarette, civilian, cocoa, collateral, com- 
modious, conceit, confectionery, corduroy, counterfeit, 
curriculum, customary, deceive, deferred, delicacy, 
descendant, Wednesday, February, domain, dysentery, 
ecstasy, eligibility, embarrassment, envelope, equally, 
exceed, exhilarate, extravagance, facilitate, forfeit, 
fraudulent, frontispiece, gaiety, garrison, gazetteer, 
giraffe, gorgeous, granary, grenadier, grievance, guar- 
antee, guinea, hackneyed, hammock, heifer, heredi- 
tary, honorary, icicle, idolatrous, illiterate, impossible, 
inaugurate, incendiary, incomparable, incurred, indict- 
ment, influenza, initiatory, insatiable, intricacy, itin- 
erant, janitor, judgment, kerchief, laboratory, languor, 
laudatory, lavatory, leisure, levelled, librarian, lini- 
ment, liquorice, longevity, luncheon, luscious, mack- 
erel, mahogany, maintenance, manoeuvre, mantle- 
piece, marriageable, massacre, meerschaum, menacing, 
menagerie, mercenary, meteor, millennium, mimicking, 
miniature, missionary, molasses, monotonous, mous- 
tache, musician, nauseous, necessarily, nonpareil, nui- 
sance, obsequies, offertory, optician, pageant, palata- 
ble, panacea, parachute, parallel, paralysis, parliament^ 
patrolling, pavilion, peasantry, penitentiary, permissi- 
ble, petroleum, phaeton, physician, plaintiff, plebeian, 
pleurisy, porcelain, poultice, prairie, preliminary, pre- 
paratory, privilege, progenitor, promissory, psychol- 
ogy, pulley, purvey, quarrelling, query, rarity, receipt, 
reciprocity, regatta, release, removable, repressible, 
reservoir, restaurant, rhyme, salary, saleable, saucily, 
sciatica, scythe, secession, separate, shyly, souvenir, 
squalor, stereotype, stratagem, suicide, surfeit, sur- 
geon, symj)hony, trousseau, valise, veterinary, victuals, 
jacht. 

36 



ISCOMMERCIAL? 



^-ARITHMETIC 



cr^H 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 

The author of this book gives .instruction by mail to a large 
number of men and women each year, and he knows something of 
the needs of those who are anxious to improve their time by home- 
study. In the preparation of these few brief lessons, care has been 
taken to present the every-day business side of arithmetic. Fully 
two-thirds of the arithmetic taught in the public and high schools 
of this country is nothing more than finger exercise, and so far as 
actual benefit is concerned the children might much better be 
darning stockings. To do an exercise which has no practical value 
and which does not produce any mental growth is, to say the east, 
to spend time foolishly. The boy who fails to solve a problem 
after spending an hour's hard labor on it, gets one thousand times 
the benefit from the exercise that the boy gets who solves the prob- 
lem correctly in a minute. It is the effort which we make, not what 
we accomplish, which counts in the educational world. 

UNITED STATES MONEY. 

Gold Coins. The gold coins of the United States"- 
are as follows: Twenty Dollars (Double Eagle); Ten- 
Dollars (Eagle); Five Dollars (Half Eagle); Thm& 
Dollars; Two and One-half Dollars; One Dollar. Tl^e 
weight of a $io gold piece is 258 Troy grains. The 
weights of the other coins are in the same proportion 
to their value. All are made of nine-tenths pure gold. 
Gold coins of standard weight are legal tender for all 
debts. 

Silver Coins. The silver coins are as follows: 
One Dollar; Half-Dollar; Quarter-Dollar; and Dime, 
The Dollar weighs 412.5 Troy grains, and the Half- 
Dollar weighs 192.9 Troy grains. The Five-cent piece 
and the Three-cent piece are made of three parts copper 
and one part nickel. The one-cent piece is made wholly 
of bronze. 

Silver Certificates. Any holder of silver dollars, 
to the amount of ten dollars or more, may deposit the 
same with the Treasurer of the United States and 
obtain therefor Silvei^ Certificates^ which are receivable 
for duties, ta;s:es and all public debts. Smaller silver 
coins to the amount of twenty dollars will be similarly- 
exchanged. 

Treasury Notes. Treasury Notes, or Greenbacks'^ 
are the same denominations as the bills of the National 
Banks, with the addition of $5,000 and $10,000 value 
respectively. They are legal tender for all debts 
except customs duties and interest on the public debt,, 
and are usually receivable for these also, being con- 
vertible into coin on demand when presented in sums 
of fifty dollars or more. 

37 



COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC. 



National Bank Bills. These are issued by National 
Banks under the supervision of the Government. The 
denominations are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500, 
and $1,000. They are secured by deposits of Govern- 
ment Bonds with the United States Treasurer. They 
are usually received for all debts, but strictly speaking 
are not legal tender. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 

1. You receive a somewhat worn $10 gold piece. 
You find that it weighs 213 Troy grains. What is its 
value.? {Ans, $8.33.) 

2. A book agent bought 90 books at $2.75 each. 
He sold them at $5 each. His expenses were $12.25. 
He was unable to collect for three books. How much 
did he gain or lose ? ( G, $175.25.) 

3. A ton of coal lasts a family 14 days. If coal is 
^orth $5.25 a ton, what will their coal cost from, Oct. 
1st of one year until March 31 of the next ? 

{Ans. $6%.2^.) 

4. A merchant's cash receipts for a week are 
$231.14, $125.63, $632.84, $321.15, $424.17 and $563.85, 
Find his daily average. (^;w. $383.13.) 

5. If 5 shillings be worth $1.22, how much should one 
receive for an English P. O. money order for £2^ us. 
6d..? {Ans. $119.93.) 

GAINS AND LOSSES. 

The difference between the cost of anything and the 
price at which it is sold is a gain or loss — a gain when 
the selling price is the greater, and a loss when the cost 
is the greater. Almost the entire business of the country 
is conducted for the purpose of profit, and for this rea- 
son commercial arithmetic is made up largely of com- 
putations of gains and losses. Try the five examples 
given below : 

PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 

6. A milk dealer buys 27 ten-gallon cans of milk each 
day at $1.75 a can. He keeps three delivery wagons at 
an expense of $1.75 a day, and sells milk at 7 cents a 
quart. Find his gain in ten weeks including Sunday. 

{Ans, $1,617.) 

7. A man bought a house and lot for $7,842. He 
built an addition to the house at a cost of $1,643. The 
house was destroyed by fire, and he received insurance 
$3,520. He then sold the lot for $5,212. How much 
did he lose ? {Ans, $750.) 

8. A merchant had goods on hand at the first of the 
year valued at $12,324. He bought goods at a cost of 

38 



COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC. 



$7,623, and sold goods for $145265 during the year. At 
the end of the year his stock book shows goods on hand 
worth $8,937. How much did he gain during the 
year.? (^^j-. $3,255.) 

9. A grocer bought 100 loads of potatoes, of 30 
bushels each, at y]\ cents a bushel. Allowing 7^ bushels 
for waste, how much will he gain by retailing the 
remainder at 15 cents a peck ? {Ans, $670.50.) 

HOW TO MAKE CHANGE. 
Salesmen usually make change by addition. 
They have the money to count out, and in doing so, 
they add to the amount of the purchase until they 
reach the amount of the bill presented. For exam- 
ple, if you buy something worth $3.35 and present a 
ten-dollar bill in payment, you will probably receive in 
return 5 cents, 10 cents, 50 cents, $1, and $5, the sales- 
man saying, 40, 50, $4, $5, $10. This method is least 
liable to error. Accuracy and rapidity in counting out 
change can be acquired best by practice behind the 
counter or at the cash-desk. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 

10. If you have no change except a 25-cent piece, 
a 50-cent piece, and a $5 bill, how can you pay a bill 
of $1.65, if the collector has two lo-cent pieces and 
several $2 bills ? 

11. You owe $4.40, and have a $10 bill, a silver 
dollar, and 3 lo-cent pieces. The collector has $7 in 
bills, three 25-cent pieces, and a 5 cent piece. How can 
change be made } 

HINTS ON DECIMALS. 

Many persons who are thoroughly familiar with 
ordinary fractions, find much difficulty in multiplying 
or dividing decimals correctly. The fraction \ 
when written in the form of a decimal is .5. To 
change a decimal to a fraction write for denominator 
one followed by as many ciphers as there are digits 
after the decimal point. .5 = ^5^ = 1. .2.-=:^-^^:^\, 
.04 = Y^ 0" = A • Remember that .50 is the same as . 5. 
Annexing ciphers to a decimal does not alter its 
value. 4X4=16. .4X4=. 1 6. .04 X. 004 = 
.00016. There are always as many decimal places in 
the product as in the multiplier and multiplicand 
together. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 

12. Ten times a certain decimal is 3 : what is one- 
tenth of the decimal } {Aits. .03.) 

13. To the difference between 5 and .5 add .05. 

(^//j-. 4.55.) 



COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC. 



14. Multiply .006 by J and divide the product by 3. 

(Ans. .001.) 

15. Find the cost of 3,235 pounds of coal at ^5.25 
a ton. {Ans. $8.49.) 

16. Find the cost of 6,284 feet of lumber at $12.35 
a M. {Ans, $77.61.) 

17. Find the cost of constructing 5,984 feet of side- 
walk at $137.50 per thousand feet. {A7ts. ($822.80.) 

MEASURES. 

Measurements are treated under the heading of 
Mechanics' Arithmetic in another part of this book. 
Avoirdupois -weight is used in weighing all arti- 
cles except precious metals and dry medicines. One 
ton equals 2,000 pounds. One pound equals 16 Ounces. 
One stone equals 14 pounds. Liquid measure is 
used in measuring liquids. There are 4 gills in a pint, 
2 pints in a quart, and 4 quarts in a gallon. There 
are 31 J gallons in a barrel. Dry measure is used in 
measuring dry articles. There are 8 quarts in a peck, 
and 4 pecks in a bushel. The United States standard 
bushel measures 2,150.42 cubic incheso Time is meas- 
ured by seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, 
and years. All years divisible by 4, except centennial 
years, are leap years. All centennial years divisible by 
400 are leap years. There are 12 dozen in a gross. 
There are 24 sheets in a quire, and 20 quires in a 
ream. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 

18. How many pints of oil in a vessel containing 15 
gallons? (Ans. 120 pts.) 

19. A fruit dealer bought 5 bushels of cherries at 
$2.50 a bushel, and sold them at 15 cents a quart. 
Did he gain or lose, and how much ? 

{A71S. G. $11.50.) 

20. What is the value of 3,426 bushels of potatoes 
at 42 cents a peck } {Ans. $5,755.68.) 

21. A boy bought a gross of penholders for 8c 
cents and sold them at 3 cents each. Find his profit.. 

{Ans.$yt^2.) 

BILLS AND ACCOUNTS. 

A bill or an account is a detailed statement of 
merchandise sold, or of services rendered. A person 
who owes money, goods, or services is called a 
debtor ; and the person to whom the money, goods, 
or services are due, is called a creditor. A hill 
should state the names of the buyer and seller the 
place and time of the transaction, and any special 



COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC. 



terms agreed upon by the parties. A bill is 
receipted when the words " Received payment, " or 
" Paid, ''' are written at the bottom, and the creditor, or 
some one acting for him,, affixes his name. After an 
itemized bill has h^^xi rendered and not paid, the 
creditor does not visually make out a second bill com- 
plete, but simply the form of a bill with the words 
" To account rendered, '' a.nd the total amount. This 
incomplete form is called a statement. If goods are 
sold on credit after an itemized bill of a previous pur- 
chase has been rendered, the new items are simply 
added to the statement. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE. 
TRANSACTIONS. 

Aug. 20, i8g2. Newton, Mass. Guy Manner- 
ing bought of Daniel Deronda & Co., on acct., 
26 yds. Silk at ^145; 4 yds. Lining at 15^; 4 
yds. Muslin at 11^; 2 doz. Buttons at 25^; 12 
yds. Flannel at 38^ ; 2 pr. Kid Gloves at ^1.25 ; 
7 yds. Ribbon at 32^. Oct, 75, i8q2. 15 yds. 
Black Cloth at ^2.10; 5 yds. Tweed at $1.85. 
N'ov. zj, i8g2. Guy Mannering pays on ac- 
count, $30. Dec, zj, i8g2. Guy Mannering 
pays his account in full. 
CLERK'S WORK. 

Make out and render an itemized bill Aug. 31. 

Render a statement on Sept. 30. 

Make out the account to be rendered Oct. 31. 

Credit this last bill with the amount paid 
Nov. 13. 

Render a statement on Nov. 30. 

Receipt this last statement in full Dec. 15. 

[Itemized Bill.] 

Newton, Mass., Aug. 31, 1892, 
Mr, Gicy ManneiHng, 

To Daniel Deronda & Co., D7\ 

Accounts rendered monthly. 



Aus:. 20 



26 yds. Silk . . 

4 yds. Lining . 

4 yds. Muslin . 

2 doz. Buttons 
12 yds. Flannel 

2 pr. Gloves . 

7 yds. Ribbon 



1.4s 


M 


70 




•IS 




60 




.11 




44 




.2 ^ 




50 




•3« 


4 


56 




1.25 


2 


50 




•32 


2 


24 






~ 


~ 


t 



54 



COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC. 



[Statement.] 

Newton, Mass., Sept. 30, 1892. 
Mr, Guy Mamie ring, 

To Daniel Deronda & Co., Dr, 

Accounts rendered monthly. 



To account rendered Aug. 31 . . . . 



54 



[Statement and Bill.] 

Newton, Mass., Oct. 31, 1892. 
Mr, Gicy Mannermg, 

To Daniel Deronda & Co., Dr, 

Accounts rendered monthly. 



Oct. 



15 



To account rendered Sept. 30 . . 

15 yds. Blk. Cloth . . . @ $2.10 

5 yds. Tweed @ 1.85 

Received cash $30. 

Daniel Deronda & Co. 



54 

75 
29 



[Statement.] 

Newton, Mass., Nov. 30, 1892. 
Mr, Guy Man7ie7Hngy 

To Daniel Deronda & Co., Dr, 

Accounts rendered monthly. 



To Balance of account 



Received pay77ient in fid I, 

Daniel Deronda & Co., 

Per Josh Whitcomb. 



59 



29 



Note. — When a clerk receipts a bill it is customary and neces- 
sary to write his own name under that of the creditor. 



COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC. 



PERCENTAGE. 

The term percentage is applied to certain arith- 
metical^xercises in which loo is used as the basis of 
computation. Per cent (written %) is an abbreviation 
of the Latin /d-r centiwt^ meaning "by the hundred." 
The rate is the number which denotes how many units 
are taken in each hundred. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 

23. What fraction of $200 is $5 ? What per cent ? 

24. A clerk who received $325 a year had his salary 
raised 40%. What does he receive now t 

{Ans.$4SS') 

25. A lawyer collected a debt of ^,264, and charged 
5% for his services. How much did he pay over? 

{ A ns. $;^,ioo.So.) 

26. Ten years ago the population of a city was 
26,276. Its present population is 31,530, Find the 
increased per cent. (Ans. 20%.) 

27. What per cent above cost must a man mark his 
goods in order that he may take off 10% from the 
marked price and still make 20% on the cost ? 

(Ans. 33^%.) 

TRADE DISCOUNT. 

When a reduction is made from the nominal price of 
an article, from the amount of a debt, or from the face 
of a note, it is called a discount. The list price 
is usually the catalogue price, or the retailer's selling 
price. The manufacturer or wholesale dealer allows 
the retailer a trade discount which is deducted at a 
certain rate per cent from the face of the invoice. The 
amount of the discount depends sometimes upon the 
amount of the order, and sometimes upon the terms 
of settlement. Very often two or more discounts are 
deducted in succession. Thus to% and 5% off, or, 
as it is generally expressed in business, 10 and 5 off, 
means a discount of 10%, and then 5% from what is 
left. This is not equivalent to a discount of 15%. 
The result is not affected by the order in which the dis- 
counts are taken. 

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES. 

1. Invoice $80. Dis. 20 and 10 off. Find net 
amt. 

$80.00 
16.00 Multiply by 2 and carry one place to the right. 



64.00 
6.40 Carry one place to the right. 

^57.60 Ans. 



COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC. 



2. Invoice, $324.45. Dis. 30 and 5 off. Find net 

amt. 

$324-45 A 

97.335 Multiply by 3 and carry one placy to right. 



227.115 
11.355 Take half and carry one place to right. 

$215.76 Ans. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 

28. A dealer gives 25 and 10 off. Find the net 
amount of an invoice of $420. (Ans. ^^283. 50.) 

29. What is the difference of a bill of $425 between, 
a discount of 50% and a discount of 30% and 20% } 

{Ans. $25.50.) 

30. An agent buys 3 pianos, the list prices of which 
are $420, $630, and $800. He is allowed 20 and 10 off. 
He sells the pianos at an advance of 50% on the cost 
prices. Find his total profit. (A^/s. $666.) 

INVOICES. 

An Invoice is a detailed statement of merchandise 
sold by one dealer to another. Invoices are very 
different in detail. No rules for the guidance of 
students can be given. The peculiar methods of any 
particular business house can be learned only by actual 
practice in that house. 

EXCHANGE. 

The system by which merchants in distant places 
discharge their debts to each other without the trans- 
mission of money is called exchange. The business 
of exchange is usually conducted through the medium, 
of drafts forwarded and collected by banks. 

COMMISSION. 

Commission is an allowance or compensation to an 
agent or jobber. The business of a broker is very 
similar to that of a commission merchant except that 
the former does not usually have possession of the mer^ 
chandise bought or sold. The person who sends goods 
to be sold is called the consignor or shipper. Th& 
name consignment is given to the goods sent. The 
commission or brokerage for buying or selling merchan- 
dise or real estate is usually estimated at a certain per 
cent of the amount invested or realized. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 

31. An estate dealer sells a house and lot for 
^5,620 at 2i per cent. What is his commission ? 

(Ans. $140.50.) 



COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC, 



32. A manufacturer sent $5,202 to a leather dealer 
>vith which to purchase leather at r-|% commission on 
the sum invested. How much commission should he 
deduct? (Am. $102.) 

TAXES AND DUTIES. 
Taxes are sums of money assessed on persons, 
property, or incomes, to defray the expenses of a coun- 
try or corporation. A iicen.se is a written permit to 
conduct a certain business. Duties or customs are 
taxes levied by the government on goods imported 
from foreign countries. Some duties are levied 
according to the weight of the article, and others 
according to the value. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISE. 

33. The New York City lax rate for a particular 
year is quoted as $18.50. What will be the taxes on a 
house assessed for $9,000 ? {Aizs, $166.50.) 

INTEREST. 
Interest is the sum charged for the use of money. 
It is really the use of money, or the benefit derived 
from its use. The principal is the sum for the use of 
which interest is paid. 1 he rate is the per cent of 
the principal charged for its use for one year. Accur- 
ate interest is reckoned on a basis of 365 days to 
a year. Sixty-day interest is reckoned on a basis of 30 
days to a month. In counting the days from one 
date to another include one of the dates given but not 
both. 

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES. 

/. Find ike interest on %2^o froi7i Aug. /j to Dec. 12 
at 6% 

From Aug. 13 to Dec. 12 

= 18 +30 + 31 + 30+ I- = 121 ds. 

(240X6 X 121 )-f-(iooX 365) = $477. Ans. 
2. Find the interest at 5% on a note drawn April j, 
at J months. Face of note $146 {alloiv ^ ds. grace). 

From April 5 to July 5 = 3 months. 

Note due July 8. ' 

From April 5 to July 8 

= 25 + 3 1 -}- 30 + 8 = 94 ds. 

(146X 5X94)^(iooX 365 ) 3= $1.88. Ans. 

Note. — There are many short methods of computing mterest. 
For explanations of the best of these we refer you to the depart- 
ment of this book devoted to short-cuts in figures. 

PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 

34. A man borrows $1,840 at 5% and loans it 
immediately at 7|%. What does he gain in nine 
months? (^^^j-. $34.50.) 

45 



COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC. 



3B. A man pays $37$ a year rent for a house 
worth $5,400. Will he gain or lose, and how much in 
four years, if he borrows money at 7% to purchase the 
house? {Lose $12). 

36. David Copperfield borrows $730 from Oliver 
Twist and gives in return the following promissory 
note : 

Old Curiosity Shop^ Mar. j, i8g2. 
Three months after date for value recceived 
I promise to pay to the order of Oliver 
Twist the sum of Seven Hundred and 
Thirty Dollars with interest at six per 
cent, David Copperfield. 

David Copperfield cannot pay this note when it falls 
due. He therefore (on the third day of grace) gives 
Oliver Twist a new note for the full amount including 
the interest then due. The following is the second 
note with the date and exact amount omitted : 

Old Curiosity Shop , i8g2. 

Seventy days after date for value received 
I promise to pay to the order of Oliver 
Twist the sum of Seven Hundred and 

Dollars with interest at ^ per cent. 

David Copperfield, 
What is the full amount (principal and interest) to be 
paid by Copperfield when the second note falls due t 
Allow three days of grace in each instance, and reckon 
accurate interest on a basis of 365 days to the year. 

BANK DISCOUNT. 

The sum charged by a bank for cashing a note or a 
time draft is called bank discount. This discount 
is simply the interest, paid in advance, for the number 
of days the note or draft has to run. In the business 
world few notes are given for a longer period than four 
months. When a note is discounted at a bank the 
payee indorses it, making it payable to the bank. 
Both maker and payee are then responsible to the 
bank for its payment. If the note is drawing interest 
the discount will be reckoned on and deducted from 
the amount due at maturity. 

INSURANCE. 
Insurance is the indemnity secured against possi- 
ble loss or damage. The policy is the contract or 
agreement between the insurer and the insured. The 
premium is the sum paid for insurance, and is 
usually a certain percentage of the amount insured. 
The rate depends upon the character and location of 
the property. 

46 



I. THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 

Congress. All legislative powers of the United 
States are vested in a Congress consisting of a Senate: 
and a House of Representatives. Congress assembles 
at least once a year. 

Representatives. The House of Representatives 
shall be composed of members chosen every second 
year by the people of the several States. A Repre- 
sentative must be not younger than 25 years, and have 
been a citizen seven years. One Representative is 
allowed for each 30,000 inhabitants. The House of 
Representatives choose their Speaker and other offi- 
cers. The Speaker appoints the committees, and these 
really determine what the House shall do. 

Senate. The Senate is composed of two Senators 
from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for 
six years. A Senator must be not younger than 30 
years, and have been a citizen nine years. The Sen- 
ators represent the States ; the Representatives repre^ 
sent the people. Both are expected to vote according 
to their own individual opinion. The Vice-President 
of the United States is president of the Senate. 

Lavrs. In order to become a law a bill must pass 
both houses and receive the signature of the President. 
If the President withholds his signature, or, in other 
words, vetoes the measure, it is returned to the house,, 
and can become law only by a two- thirds vote of the 
members of each house. A bill may originate in 
either house, except it be a bill relating to the raising^ 
of revenue. In that case it must originate in the 
House of Representatives. 

2. THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 

President. The executive power is vested in a 

President who holds office for four years. He must be 

a "natural born citizen" and be at least 35 years old. 

47 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED. 



He is commander-in-chief of army and navy' and has 
the' vast majority of important executive appoint- 
ments under his control. He regulates all foreign 
relations. The election of the President is indirect, 
through electors chosen by the people.. The electors 
of a State equal in number its total representation in 
Congress. The election is held on the Tuesday fol- 
lowing the first Monday in November, every four years. 
The party conventions held earlier in the year are by 
far the most important part of the machinery of the 
election. The Vice-President is chosen at the same 
time and in the same manner as the President. He 
has no part in the executive function. 

Cabinet. The heads of the leading departments, 
known as Secretary of State, Secretary of War, Sec- 
retary of the Navy, Postmaster-General, etc., form 
what is known as the President's Cabinet. 

3. THE JUDICIARY DEPARTMENT. 
Judiciary. The Judiciary of the United States 
consists of a Supreme Court, Circuit Courts and Dis- 
trict Courts. Its organization and functions rest more 
upon constitutional provision than upon statute. The 
Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and eight 
associate justices. These control subordinate courts 
called Circuit Courts. Each circuit is divided into 
districts in which are held District Courts. All judges 
•of the United States Courts are appointed by the 
President, with and by the consent and advice of the 
Senate, to serve during good behavior. Almost every 
district has its own federal district attorney and its 
own United States marshal, both of whom are ap- 
pointed by the President. If a ship rescued the cargo 
of another ship, and questions arose between the two 
owners, such a ca.se would come before the United 
States Court. If a question arose about a railroad 
which crossed several States, it might come before a 
United States judge. So with suits about patents 
upon inventions and the copyright of books. If a 
question arose under any act or law of Congress ; or 
between citizens of different States ; in such cases the 
national courts may be asked to decide. 




HINTS FOR SALESMEN. 

Frankness invites frankness. 

Cultivate a memory for faces and names. 

Selling ability depends very largely on common 
sense. 

It is not the quantity but the quality of speech that 
tells. 

The seller should only talk enough to keep the buyer 
talking. 

Christian principles and morality are best illustrated 
by example. 

Never show the white feather. Nothing succeeds 
like success. 

By presenting many samples at once you will con- 
fuse the buyer. 

If there be any grand secret, it will be found some- 
where in that vital quality called force of character. 

It stands to reason that a salesman will succeed best 
with a line of goods for which he has a natural liking. 

If a salesman cannot bring himself to believe in 
himself, his house and his goods, he is either very 
badly placed, or he has mistaken his calling. 

Remember that there is often less difference between 
two men, than between two moments of the same 
man. 

A conceited, pretentious and affected manner dis- 
gusts and repels, while a person whose bearing is 
simple and natural, attracts and makes friends. 

Remember that he who puts another in the attitude 
of being a teacher to him pays a delicate compliment 
which is generally appreciated. 

The eye is the chief medium through v»rhich a man 
fires off whatever personal magnetism he possesses. 
49 



SUCCESS ON THE ROAD. 



One who really feels good- will may often infuse it into 
the heart of another by looking kindly and pleasantly 
straight into his eyes. 

There is an old maxim : " When you buy, keep one 
eye on the goods, the other on the seller; when you 
sell, keep both eyes on the buyer. " 

The best salesmen of the future will not be illiter- 
ate. Education informs the mind, trains the thinking 
powers, and stamps the face with intelligence. 

Activity is not necessarily energy or industry. 

A Westerner says that it does not matter what kind 
of tracks you leave so long as you get there. This is 
certainly not true when applied to salesmen. 

There are cold, bilious, disgruntled people, who can 
no more be opened out by politeness than oysters. 
Such can only be reached through their self-interest. 

The well-dressed man has more self-respect, and 
commands more than the man in seedy attire. 

The successful man is a man who knows how to 
talk, what to talk about, and more especially when to 
Stop talking. 

The faculty of holding trade, or of selling repeat- 
edly to the same houses, is the highest attribute in the 
condition of a successful salesman. 

You must be thoroughly informed as to the quality 
of the goods you are selling. 

You will sell more goods in five minutes on a bright, 
busy day, when the store is full of customers, than in 
an hour on a rainy day, when everything is dull and 
the merchant gloomy. 

Faithfulness and trustworthiness are more valuable 
than intelligence, for they are very much harder to find 
and can't be bought. You can't frighten common-sense 
into anybody, or bulldoze trustworthiness out of him. 

Your associates should be pure and good, and your 
personal habits correct. You must be governed by 
sound principles of morality and religion, without 
which no true success can be attained. 
50 



dui to cQndHdt a hoie 



A "Winter reading circle, if conducted with zeal 
and enthusiasm, cannot fail to have an elevating influ- 
ence not only upon those immediately connected there- 
with, but upon the general literary and educational 
spirit of the community. 

Ask twelve others to join you and form a Thirteen. 
Club, continuing your reading and your weekly gath- 
erings for thirteen "weeks. Get together for organ- 
ization fully two weeks in advance of your first regular 
meeting. You will need only t"WO officers, a Presi- 
dent and a Secretary- Treasurer. Appoint these by- 
ballot at your first meeting. The President will be 
the general head of the club, while the Secretary- 
Treasurer will attend to its correspondence and_ 
finances. 

Arrange an outline of reading and study for the: 
thirteen weeks similar to the following : 

1. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

2. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE. 

3. THE LAKE POETS. 

4. AMERICAN HUMORISTS. 

5. CURRENT MAGAZINES. 

6. HENRY W. LONGFELLOW. 

7. CHARLES DICKENS. 

8. TENNYSON. 

9. AMERICAN NOVELISTS. 

10. OUR FAVORITE POEMS. 

11. OUR FAVORITE NOVELS. 

12. EMERSON, HOLMES AND LOWELL. 

13. LITERARY QUESTION BOX. 

Appoint a committee to arrange thirteen sub- 
topics upon each general topic. For example, the 
51 



HOW TO CONDUCT A HOME READING CLUB. 

■ evening devoted to William Shakespeare might be 
-arranged in thirteen departments as follows : 

I. EARLY ENGLISH DRAMA. 

.2. BIOGRAPHY. 

3. INFLUENCE OF THE DRAMA; 

4. FAMOUS CHARACTERS. 

5. SHAKESPEARE'S INFLUENCE ON 

LITERATURE. 

6. FAMOUS SPEECHES. 

7. FAMOUS QUOTATIONS. 

8. SHAKESPEARE AS A POET. 

9. FAMOUS GERMAN DRAMATISTS. 

10. HIS GREATEST PLAYS. 

11. SHAKESPEARIAN ACTORS. 

12. FAMOUS PLOTS. 

13. QUESTION BOX. 

The subjects may be distributed by lot. The mem- 
ber securing No. 13 should prepare t^welve ques- 
tions — one for each of the other members. Not 
more than ten minutes should be allowed each 
member, making the evening meeting about two hours. 
The members should endeavor to make the exercises 
as bright and original as possible, and should not 
under any circumstances confine themselves simply to 
essay reading. For instance, the member who pre- 
pares the sketch of Shakespeare's life should bring 
portraits, pictures of his home, copies of his autograph, 
and such other things of interest as may be available. 

Members should take turns in presiding, and in 
every way all members should have the same amount 
of responsibility, study, and interest. A member- 
ship fee of one dollar should be charged to meet the 
expenses of the club. 

Note. — The author of this book will mail promptly to any 
address a neatly prepared type-written copy of rules and regula- 
tions for a Thirteen Club, mcluding twenty-five subjects from 
which to select, each fully outlined with sub-departments, hints 
regarding books, sample questions, and all necessary information, 
for five dollars. Address: Seymour Eaton, 42 Hollis St., 
Newton, Mass. 




INTRODUCTION. 

The "want" advertisement calls for a young man 
who is a "ready penman and quick at figures." 
These are necessary qualifications. Every person has 
more or less to do with figures, and any rule likely to 
lessen labor or make the result more certain should be 
received with favor. The rules presented in this 
chapter are the best of which the author has any 
knowledge. 

I. HOW TO ADD RAPIDLY. 

Write the numbers in vertical lines. Where a 
number is repeated several times, multiply instead of 
adding. In adding horizontally, begin at the left, since 
the eye is more accustomed to moving from right to left 
than left to right. Think of results and not of num- 
bers themselves. Thus, do not say 3 and 4 are 7, and 
8 are 15, and 9 are 24, etc. ; but 7, 15, 24, etc. Make 
combinations of 10, or other numbers, as often as 
possible, and add them as single numbers. Thus in 
adding 

5+4+3+5+2+3+1+4+9+4+5+ 1+6 

say, 5, 12, 22, 30, 39, 48, 55, taking each group at a 
glance as a single number. After sufificient experience 
the mind grasps the figures almost unconsciously, and 
the result is reached as quickly as the eye can glance 
along the line with attention. Practice a half hour each 
day, and in a month the result will astonish you. 

2. THE CASHIER^S METHOD. 

This rule is applicable to any kind of exercise. We 
add each column separately, putting down the sum to 
the right. 



$2354.2 1 


20 


362.45 


28 


1 598.46 


32 


9328.75 


29 


4859.82 


28 


862 1 .3 1 


24 



$27 I 25.00 $27 I 25.00 

For instance, the sum of the numbers in the first: 
column is 20, in the second 28, in the third 32, and so on. 

53 



SHORT CUTS IN FIGURES. 



"This method is of special value to bank clerks and others 
who may be disturbed while adding very large amounts. 
It does away entirely with the process of carrying. 

3. THE CASH BOY'S FRACTIONS. 

Suppose it is necessary to find the sum of J and J^ or 

any other two fractions with ones for numerators. To 

find these sums add the denomina- 

4+5 =^ 9 tors, 4 and 5, for the numerator of 

4X5 = 20 ^^^ answer, and multiply them for 

the denominator. To subtract 

them, subtract the denominators for the numerator of 

the answer, and multiply them for the denominator. 

This rule applies to all similar fractions, and is well 

worth remembering. 

4. THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR'S RULE. 

The best expert cannot add a column of ones any 
faster than you can. It may be worth your while to 
study this secret. Teachers find it very helpful when 
they are obliged to give long addition exercises to the 
children and wish to be saved the labor of addition 
themselves. Note that the second line 
324532 added to the first makes 7ttnes, except 
0yg4Q3 at the right, where two figures add to 
253361 ^^^' The third and fourth, and fifth and 
T46639 sixth lines of figures are similar. The 
I 23445 ^^'^ ^^^^ rows are small numbers writ- 
oygKKK ten down at random. Now, to get the 
I 232 I 3 answer, begin to the left if you wish. 
93^095 Write down 3, which is the number of 
*^ " couplets " of figures above, then add 

-0007230 only the two rows at the bottom, say- 
ing (mentally) 2 and i are 3, 3 and 2 
are 5, 4 and 3 are 7, o and 2 are 2, 2 and i are 3, and 
5 and 3 are 8. This exercise can be varied greatly by 
writing the two, or three or four lines at the bottom, or 
■by placing one of these lines at the top and one at the 
i)ottom. 

5. THE EXCESS RULE. 

If you wish to multiply any two numbers, each of 

which is a little larger than 100, you will find this rule 

very helpful: Multiply the excesses — 

I 23 that is, 23 by 4 — and put down the pro- 

I 04 duct 92, two places to the right as in the 

I 2792 illustration. Then add the two numbers, 

104 and 123, omitting one of the ones at 

the left. Carry when necessary. Apply this rule to 

any similar numbers such as 112 by 106, or 122 by 105, 

or 135 by 103. 

54 



SHORT CUTS IN FIGURES. 



6. HOW TO PROVE ADDITION IN A MINUTE. 

This is an old rule in a new dress. It is certainly a 
novel and practical method of proving addition, it is 
really a modification of the old method of casting out 
the nines y wL." /. is familiar to every one. 

256398=33= 6 
5463 1 2=2 1 = 3 
856659=39=12=3 [^ =34=7 
725733=27= 9 
334694=29= I I =2 
446859=36= 9 

3491287=34=7 

Add the figures in each line. The first adds to 20 
and their sum is 2. The second adds to -^^y ^^^ their 
sum is 6. The third adds to 21 and their sum is 3. 
The fourth adds to 39 and their sum is 3, and so on. 
In each case keep on adding until you have reduced the 
line to one figure. Now find the sum of all these unit- 
ates. You will get 34, and the sum of 3 and 4 is 7. In 
this way you reduce the whole example to a unit. Now 
do the same with your answer, and if your addition is 
correct the umtate in each case will be the same. Note 
this example : 

8943=24=6 
2586=2 1 =3 
3472= ! 6=7 
5963=23=5 
3485=20=2 
2157=15=6 
26606=20=2 



=29=1 1=2 



Very little practice will make it unnecessary to write 
down the unitates. They can easily be added as ob- 
tained. 

7. THE COMPLEMENT RULE. 

We have already learned how to multiply two num- 
bers each of which is a little greater than 100. Now 
take two numbers each of which is a little less than 
100, 98 by 94 for instance. The complement of a num- 
ber is the difference 
08 ■ ■ 2 (Complement) between the number 
g^ " * 6 (Complemerat) and the^ unit of the 

02 1 2 Vi^^t higher order. 

Thus the complement 
of 98 is 2; of 94 is 6; of 987 is 13, etc. To multiply 
these two numbers multiply the complements, 2 and 6, 

55 



SHORT CUTS IN FIGURES. 



aad place the product, 12, in the answer. For the re- 
m^'ining two figures subtract across, either the 2 from 
the 04, leaving 92, or the 6 from 98, leaving 92. Apply 
this r\"le to as many exercises as you wish. Try the 
following : 97 X 98 ; 99 X 96; 94 X 89^^ 

8. THE jLli^NE-NINE-iTlSrE RULE. 

This is really Rule No. 7 applied to larger numbers. 
Suppose you wish to multiply 895 by 994. As in Rule 
No. 7, write the complements to the right. Now mul- 
tiply 105 by 6 and place the three 
895 ■ ■ I 05 figures in the product. Then 

994- " " 6 to get the remainder of the pro- 

889630 ^^^^^ subtract either the 105 from 
the 994, or the 6 from the 895. 
The 889 might be got by addition. If you add 895 and 
994, you will notice that the first two figures, 5 and 4, 
give the 9, then 9 and 9 are 18, put down 8 and carry 
one^ then I and 9 and 8 are 18, put down 8 and drop the 
one entirely. This is perhaps easier than subtracting. 

9. THE SALESMAN'S RULE. 

Suppose you want to find the value of 128 yds. at 75 

cents. Now to find the value of any number of yards 

of cloth at 75 cents a yard, or any number 

I 28 of articles at 75 cents each, deduct one- 

32 quarter of the number from itself and call 

^gg the remainder dollars. At one dollar a 

yard the answer would be $128; then at 75 

cents it must be three-quarters of this, or one-quarter 

less. At ^']\ cents deduct one-eighth. At 66f cents 

deduct one-third. 



10. THE LOCK-STITCH RULE. 

If you wish to multiply any number by 11, you will 
find this rule very helpful. For instance, if you wish to 
multiply 23 by 11, you simply add the 2 and 3 together 

and place the sum between the 
23X I 1^253 two original figures. To multiply 

362,753 by II. Put down the right- 
3 5 9 4 2 8 3 hand figure, 3. Then say, 3 and 5 

are 8. Then, 5 and 7 are 12, put 
down 2 and carry i. Then, i and 7 and 6 are 14, put 
down 4 and carry i. Then, i and 6 and 2 are 9. 
Then, 2 and 3 are 5. Then write the left-hand figure, 
3. This is a very simple method. Try a few exer- 
cises, first working them the long way, then by apply- 
ing this short-cut. 

56 



SHORT CUTS IN FICxURES. 



11. THE LOWELL RULE. NO. i. 

To multiply any two numbers of two figures each, 
when the right-hand figures add to lo and the left- 
hand figures are the same : For instance, 76 
T6 by 74. Multiply the two right-hand figures, 
YA- 6 by 4, placing 24 in the product, then carry 
5624 ^' ^^^^ multiply 7 by 8, placing 56 in the pro- 
duct. Always carry 07ie adding it to one of 
the left-hand figures. Apply this rule to any similar 
numbers, such as 24 by 26, 35 by 35, 27 by 23, 81 by 
89, 42 by 48. 

12. THE LOWELL RULE. NO. 2. 

The rule explained in No. 11 can be applied to large 

numbers. Take for example, 298 by 292. Here the 

left-hand numbers (29) are the same, and 

298 the right-hand numbers add to 10. Say 

292 twice 8 are 16, and put down both figures. 

OyQ I Q Then carry one to 29, and you have 30. 

Now, it is quite easy to multiply 29 by 3a 

mentally. The product is 870, all of which is placed in 

the answer. Apply this rule to 104 by 106, 112 by 118^ 

152 by 158, 127 by 123, 993 by 997. 

13. THE SQUARE RULE. 

To multiply numbers such as 27 by 43. Here the 

mean number — that is, the number which is as much 

greater than 37 as it is less than 43 — is 40. 

40 Forty, squared, or multiplied by itself, gives 

40 1 5600- The square of 3, the difference be- 

I Ann ^^^^^ ^^^ mean number and one of the num- 

O bers, is 9. 1,600 — 9=1 591 = the product of 

^ 27 and 43. Apply this rule to Sy by 73, 63 by 

1591 57, 22 by 18,1,009 by 991, 116 by 124. The 
entire work should be done mentally. 

14. RULE NO. 5 EXTENDED. 

If you wish to multiply two large numbers, each of 

which is a little over 1,000, such as 1,235 by 1,003, P^^" 

ceed as in Rule No. 5. Multiply the 

I 235 excesses, that is 235 by 3, carrying the 

I 003 product, 705, three places to the right. 

I 238705 ^^^^ ^^^ the numbers, omitting one 

of the 07zes at the left. Apply this rule 

to such numbers as 1,312 by 1,003, 1,199 by 1,005, ^^c- 

15. MULTIPLICATION BY SUBTRACTION. 

It is easier for most people to subtract than to mul- 

57 



SHORT CUTS IN FIGURES. 



tiply. Instead of multiplying by 9, we multiply by 10 
and subtract the number from this product. 

8435625X9= 84356250 

8435625 

Product, = 75920625 

To multiply by 99, add two ciphers and subtract ; to 
multiply by 999, add three ciphers and subtract, etc. 

16. FROM AN ENGLISH ARITHMETIC. 

To multiply two small numbers, each of which ends 
in 5, such as 35 and 95, take the product of the 3 and 7, 
increase this by one-half of the sum of these figures, 
and prefix the result to 25. Thus : 

35 5x5=25 

95 9x3=27, 27+4(9+3)=33 

3325 

This rule will be found to hold good with any two 
numbers each of which end with 5. Apply it to such 
numbers as 45 by 85, 35 by 75, 95 by 45, etc. 

17. THE SINGLE LINE RULE. 

In multiplying any number by 21, or 31, or 401, or 

any number of two figures where the last is i, or of 

three figures, where the last two figures are 01, a good 

deal of time can be saved by abbreviating the ordinary 

process as here illustrated. For in- 

23 1 423 stance, suppose we have to multiply 
4628460 231,423 by 21. Instead of putting 
4859883 ^^^^ 231,423 with 21 under it, then 
drawing a line, multiplying by I, then 
by 2 or 20, then adding, as is the ordinary custom ; all 
that is necessary is simply to multiply by the 2, placing 
the product, one figure to the left, and then to add. 
Try this method, using 31, 51, 61, 91, 201, 3,001 and 901 
as multipliers. There is a saving in the above exam- 
ple of eight figures. 

18. HOW SOME ACCOUNTANTS ADD. 

It is quite common with accountants to put down 
both figures as in the illustration. The sum of the 
first column is 26; carrying 2, the 
8596 26 sum of the second column is 29; 
3438 29 carrying 2, the sum of the third 
5379 14 column is 14; carrying i, the sum 

2083 I 9 of the fourth column is 19, and the 

I 9496 total is 19,496. The total is found 

by taking the 19, and the right- 
hand figures of the other three partial sums. There is 
an advantage in this method, if you desire to go back 
and add a column a second time. 

58 



SHORT CUTS IN FIGURES. 



19. ENGLISH INVOICES AND AMERICAN 
MONEY. 

Invoices of goods bought in English markets are in pounds, 
shillings and pence. The money items have, of course, to be 
changed to our currency. When money is at par value, and for 
nearly all practical purposes, the following is the best and shortest 
method of reducing English money to dollars and cents. This 
rule appeared originally in "The New Arithmetic " by the author 
of this book. It has since beer, copied into several text-books. 

Begin by reducing the shillings and pence to the decimal of 
a pound as follows: Write one-half of the greatest even fiumber 
of shillings as tenths, and if there be an odd shilling ivrite five- 
hundredths ; reduce the pence to farthing?> and write their nuin- 
ber as thousa^tdths. If the miinher of farthings is between 12 and 
jb, add one to the thousandths ; if between j6 and 48 add two t& 
the thousandths. 

£3 I4s6c!=£3.725 

Note — Divide 14 by 2 and put down 7 ; then multiply 6 by 4 
and add i, getting 25. 

£4 1 5s 1 0d=£4.7l2=£4.792 

The pound sterling is equal to ^4. 86f. Now 80 is \ 
of 400, 6f is j^2 ^^ ^o- Then, to multiply by 486f, mul- 
tiply by 400; divide the product by 5 and place the 
quotient under; then divide the quotient by 12, and 
place the second quotient under the first. Add, and 
the sum will be the same as though the number were 
multiplied by 4.86f in the ordinary way. 

Pind the value of £3.725 in dollars and cents. 

£3.725x4.86f=^^'-^. 

£3.725 Multiply by 4 for the dollars. Then 

4 divide this product by 5, which is 

j 4-900 equivalent to multiplying ^3.725 by 

2,930 ^° 5 Xh^xs. divide 2.98 by 12, which is 

• 248 equivalent to multiplying ^3725 by 



5 
12 



$18,9 28 "^ 

20. TO MULTIPLY BY 21, 22, 23, ETC. 

This rule applies to numbers of two figures each, the 
first figure of which ends with 2. Multiply each figure 

32432 ^^ ^^^ multiplicand by the unit figure of 
23 the multiplier, adding to each separate 
product double the figure to the right of 
745930 the one multiplied ; add the tens to the 
last figure doubled. In this example say : Three 
twos = 6. Three times 3 and 4 (2 doubled) = 13. 
Three times 4 and 6 and i to carry = 19. Three times 
2 and 8 and i to carry = 15. Three times 3 and 4 and 
T to carry = 14. Three doubled and i to carry =7. 
Practise this method. 

59 



SHORT CUTS IN FIGURES. 



21. ADDING BACKWARDS. 

ZS^^^X^ ^§^ wards, begin at the 

2345678 30 left-hand column, 

5432456 26 and write down 

72 I 4382 29 the full amount of 

4132094 25 each column in reg- 

68632 I 3 38 ular order, bring- 

3426340 34 ing each total one 

2534538 place to the right, 

39291914 39291 9 S4 ^.^ ^^ ^t\^^^^'^?; 

tion. 1 hen add 
the totals in the ordinary way. A knowledge of this 
method serves as a ready and reliable proof to the 
accountant. 

MISCELLANEOUS SHORT-CUTS. 

22. This same rule applies to large numbers 
such as 127 by 123, or 295 by 295. By adding one to 
29 you make 30, and it is an easy matter to multiply 
29 by 30 mentally. 

23. You can extend the multiplication table 

to the '' teens by the following rule : To one of the num- 
bers add the units figure of the other and affix a 
cipher ; increase this result by the product of the two 
units figures, and this will give the product required. 

24. You can prove multiplication by the 

method given on page 55 for the proof of addition. 
Find the imitate of the multiplicand and multiply this 
by the wiitate of the multiplier. The product should 
equal the ztnitate of your product. 

25. The six per cent method of interest is 

very simple. It is sometimes called the 60-day 
method. To find the interest of $248 at 6% for 60 
days, you simply cut off two figures and you have the 
answer, $2.48. For 30 days the interest is $1.24. 
Then multiply by the number of months necessary. 
For 3 days grace you would add one-tenth, or 12 c. 
For 7% add one-sixth. For 5% deduct one-sixth ; and 
so on. 

26. Here is an interest rule which is popular 
with some book-keepers : Multiply the principal by the 
time reduced to days ; then divide this product by the 
quotient obtained by dividing 360 by the per cent of 
interest. 

27. Here is another method : Reduce the time 
to months, and to the number thus obtained annex 

60 



SHORT CUTS IN FIGURES. 



one-third of the days, which whole number multiplied 
by one-half of the principal will produce the required 
interest at 6 per cent. 

28. The Detroit rule has some advantages : 
Multiply the principal, days, and rate together. Sup- 
pose this product to be 16,380. Divide by 5 and we 
get 3,276. Divide .this by 4 and we get 819. Divide 
the first three figures of 3.276 by 5 and we get 65. 
Now add 3,276, 819, 327, and 65, and we get $4,487, the 
interest. 

29. There are more short-cuts in multiplication 
than in any other department. If you want to multi- 
ply by 427, multiply by 7 and then by 42 which is 6 
times the product by 7 This same application can be 
made in hundreds of numbers such as 927, 279, 728, 
2S7, 729, 14,412,81,273. 

30. Sometimes the multiplier can be separated. 
For instance, instead of multiplying by 372, multiply 
by 360 +12, that is by 12 first, and then that product 
by 30. 

31. To add 374 + 391 + 265 in one column, 
begin by saying (mentally) 374 and 300 = 674, and 
91 = 765, and 200 = 965, and 65 = 1,030. 

32. In the French method, the divisor is placed 
on the right of the dividend, and the quotient below 
the divisor. In the Italian method of division, 
each product is subtracted mentally from its partial 
dividerjd, and only the difference written down. 

33. Eleven is an exact divisor of 

10 + 1, of 100 — 1, of 1,000 + 1, 
of 10,000 — 1, etc. 

34. Seven, eleven, and thirteen, and their 
multiples ']^^ 91 and 143, are exact divisors of 1,001 
and its multiples 2,002, 3,003, 9,009, etc. 

35. Every prime number when divided by 6, 
will leave a remainder of i or 5. Not every number is 
prime, however, which leaves these remainders. 

36. Every prime number, greater than 5, is an 
exact divisor of anv number expressed by as many fig- 
ures, less I, and all alike, as there are units in the 
given prime number. Thus, 7 is an exact divisor of 
111,111 or any multiple of it. 

37. Much time can be saved in almost any arith- 
metical exercise involving division by cancellation, 



SHORT CUTS IN FIGURES, 



that is by rejecting equal or common factors from both 
divisor and dividend. 

38. To add two fractions such as f and |, the 
shortest method is by cross-multiplication. That is, 
2X4 = 8, and 3X3 = 9; 9 + 8=17 the numera- 
tor. Then for denominator multiply the denominators 
3 and 4, and you have seventeen tv^elfths for answer. 

39. This same rule applies to subtraction of 
fractions, except that you subtract the, products in- 
stead of adding them. 

40. The following is a business method of 

multiplying mixed numbers : Multiply the integers to- 
gether, then multiply each integer by the fraction in 
the other number, to its nearest unit, and add the 
products. 

41. To square 5I, that is to multiply it by itself, 
say 6 times five are 30 and add J. This rule applies 
to all similar numbers. To square 16J say 17 times 
1 5, and add J. 

42. To find the value of grain when sold by the 
bushel : divide the weight by the number of pounds in 
a bushel, and multiply this by the price. 

43. To find the value of hay or coal when sold by 
the ton : multiply the weight by the price and take half 
the product, cutting off three decimal places. 

44. To find the area of a right-angled triangle, 

multiply the base by the perpendicular and take half 
the product. 

45. To find the circumference of a circle, mul- 
tiply the diameter by 3. 141 6. 

46. To find the area of a circle multiply the 
square of the diameter by .7854. 

47. To find the area of the surface of a globe, 
multiply the square of the diameter by 3.1416. 

48. To find the solidity of a globe, multiply the 
cube of the diameter by .5236. 

49. To find the area of a cylinder, multiply the 
area of the base by the length. 

50. To find the hypothenuse of a right-angled 
triangle, find the sum of the squares of the sides and 
extract the square root. 

62 



SHORT CUTS IN FIGURES. 



51. To find the diagonal of a square, multiply 
the side by lo, diminish this by one per cent of itself, 
and divide the remainder by 7. 

52. To find the amount of lumber in a log, 
making proper allowance for waste, from the square of 
the diameter in inches subtract 60 ; multiply the re- 
mainder by half of the length in feet, and point off the 
right-hand figure. 

53. To reduce, logs to square timber, multiply 
the square of the diameter in inches by the length in 
feet, take one-third of the product, and point off two 
figures. The result will be cubic feet. 

54. To find the amount of grain in a bin, take 
four-fifths of the number of cubic feet. 

55. To find the number of acres in a rectangular 
piece of land multiply the length in rods by the 
breadth in rods, and divide by 160. 

56. To find the capacity of a vat or cistern, 

multiply the square of the diameter in feet by the 
depth in feet and this product by 5J. The result will 
be in gallons. 

57. To find the capacity of a square tank, mul- 
tiply the number of cubic feet by 7J, and you will get 
the result in gallons. 

58. To square any number of two figures, square 
the units, take twice the product of the tens by the 
units, then square the tens. 

59. To square any number of nines. Begin on 
the left hand and write as many nines less one, as 
there are nines in the given number, then write an 8, 
then as many ciphers as there are nines, then write 
one. Thus the square of 999 is 998,001. 

60. Any number is divisible by three if the sum of 
its digits is divisible by three. 

61. Any number is divisible by four if it ends 
with two or more ciphers, or if the number expressed 
by its two right-hand figures is divisible by four. 

62. Any number is divisible by five if its right- 
hand figure by five or a cipher. 

63. Any number is exactly divisible by 7, 11, and 
1 3, if the units' period and the thousands' period are 
the same. 

<>3 



SHORT CUTS IN FIGURES. 



64. The product of all the prime factors of a 

number equals that number. 

65. The product of the greatest common divisor 
and least common multiple of two numbers equals the 
product of the two numbers. 

66. To multiply any two small numbers each of 
which end in one-half : to the product of the whole 
numbers, add half their sum, plus J. 

67. When (in Rule 66) the sum is an odd num- 
ber take half the next number below it, and the. frac- 
tion in the answer will be |. 

68. To multiply any two numbers having the same 
fraction : to the product of the whole numbers, add 
the product of their sum by the fraction ; to this add 
the product of the fractions/ 

69. A square number multiplied by a square 
number produces a square number. 

70. Any number is divisible by nine if the sum of 
its digits is divisible by nine. 

71. To multiply any two numbers such as 86 by 
84, where the first numbers are the same and the sec- 
ond numbers add to 10 simply say 4 times 6 are 24, 
carry 072e, and 9 times 8 are 72, putting down 7224 as 
the product. 

72. Here is a very excellent rule for finding the 
area of a triangle when the three sides are given: 
From half the sum of the three sides subtract each side 
separately; multiply the half sum and the three re- 
mainders together : the square root of the product will 
be the area 

73. To find the volume of a solid ring, multiply 
the area of a circular section of the ring by the length 
of the ring. 

74. To find the sum of any number of numbers in 
arithmetical progression, as, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, etc., i, 

2, 3, 4, 5, etc., 3, 6, 9, etc., add the first to the last and 
multiply half the sum by the number of numbers. 

75. (a — b) (a + b) = a2— b2. 

]Njote. — This subject of short-methods is continued under 
the heading " Shorthand Muhiplication " beginning on page 87. 

64 




To many people everything connected with finan- 
cial transactions seems to be enveloped in mystery. 
There is nothing mysterious about a bank. It is 
simply a place where money is deposited, either with 
or without interest, and from whence it may be with- 
drawn, either with or without notice, according to the 
rules of the institution. Money is a medium by which 
business transactions are carried on with all parts of 
the world, and the care and investment of it is learned 
by education and experience. 

When you enter a bank to open an account, in- 
quire for the cashier, and, if convenient, take with you 
some one who can introduce you and identify you as 
the person you profess to be. If you go alone, do not 
feel hurt if a number of questions are asked you. 
While you may be perfectly honest, a large number of 
people make their living by being sharp, and, besides, 
it is necessary to establish those confidential relations 
which ought to exist in all financial transactions, so 
that the cashier may know something more about you 
than he could ascertain by merely looking at you, and 
taking your name on the book. 

The cashier will have you place your signature in a 
book. Your name as written in this book should be 
the same in style as you intend to place on your 
checks. If necessary the cashier will show you how to 
make out a deposit slip. He will give you also a 
small bank book, in which you will be credited 
with the amount of money named 'on your slip. When 
you deposit money always go to the receiving teller 
and when you wish to draw money out of the bank, or 
obtain a draft, present your check to the paying 
teller. When you wish to have your book balanced, , 
hand it to the receiving teller, who will attend to it for 
you. 



BANKING. 



A check is an order for money drawn by one who 
has funds in the bank, payable on demand. When the 
cashier or book-keeper certifies a check, he binds the 
bank as an acceptor. It is the practice to immediately 
charge such checks to the account of the drawer of 
the check, although they may not be presented for 
payment for weeks. For instance if you have a note 
to pay at one bank and you have your money in an- 
other, you must write )^our check and take it to the 
bank where you deposit to have it certified. The 
cashier or some other officer of the bank marks it 
good. You then take it to the bank where you are 
not known and take up your note. Checks are usually 
made payable to order. Such checks must be 
endorsed by the person in whose favor they are 
drawn before they can be cashed. A check drawn to 
bearer is payable to anyone who holds it. If a bank 
pay a forged check it cannot charge the amount to the 
depositor whose name has been forged, but it may re- 
cover the money from the one who has innocently pre- 
sented the check and to v^^hom the money was 
paid, providing the demand for the return is made 
immediately. If you wish to draw money from your 
deposit yourself write the check pay to cash. Never 
destroy a certified check. If you do not use it, deposit 
it again as money, otherwise your account will be just 
that amount short. 

Write plainly in the body of the check the amount. 
Commence to write as far to the left as possible. For 
instance if you write in this way 



''t€iz 



tS^ltt^'i^ 



some dishonest person into whose hands the check 
falls may write " forty " or " ninety " before the " nine " 
and place a 4 or a 9 before your figure 9, and in this 
way very neatly '' raise " your check to a large amount. 
The loss would be yours and not the bank's if such a 
check were cashed. Put a running line on the blank 
space following what you have written. For instance 
if you wrote "twenty," don't give some dishonest per- 
66 



BANKING. 



son an opportunity 
to make it "twenty- 
nine," or to change 
" five " to *' five hun- 
dred." 

Do not overdraw. 
Your bank will not allow 
it. An amusing story is 
told of a lady who opened 
an account, receiving a 
check book. In doing 
her shopping she very 
soon had given checks for 
more money than she had 
deposited. Upon being 
reminded of the fact by 
her bankers, she became 
quite indignant, and said 
the bank had better get 
a new book-keeper, as 
she still had several 
checks left. 

A draft is a writ- 
ten order or request 
from one person to 
another for the pay- 
ment of money at a 
specified time. 
Drafts afford the 
safest and most con- 
venient way of re- 
mitting money. It is 
always safest to have 
a draft made to one's 
own order, and then 
endorse it over to the 
person to w^hom it is 
desired to remit. 

A note is a pro- 
mise to pay a certain 
sum of money to a 
certain person at a 
given time. 



r 



n 



4. P • J, ;<^ ^ ^ 



h 



•f^ 



p 




BANKING. 



ENI>ORSIN<; 

Checkj. 







(Pcufinl^ 







For DEPOSIT ONLV 

To The CREDIT OP 

^.C. HEATH V CO, 



68 



Indorsing Checks. 

In indorsing 
checks, note the fol- 
lowing points: 

1. Write across 
theback — not length- 
wise. 

2. Don't indorse 
wrong-end-up. The 
top of the back is the 
left end of the face. 

3. To deposit a 
check, write your 
name across the back. 

4. Write your 
name in the same 
way as it appears 
on the face. For 
instance, if the check 

s payable to "W. 
Brown, indorse W. 
B r o w^ n . If to 
Wm. Brown write 
"Wm. Brown. If 
the spelling of your 
name is wrong, in- 
dorse twice, spelling 
your name wrong 
and right. 

5. If you wish to 
make the check pay- 
able to some particu- 
lar person by indors- 
ing, write Pay to 

(NAME) or order, 
and then sign your 
own name as written 
on the face. 

Do not carry 
around indorsed 
checks loosely. 
Such checks are pay- 
able to bearer and 
may be collected by 
any one. 

A check drawn 
to bearer does not 
need indorsement. 
Neither does a check 
which reads " Pay to 
Cash" or "Pay to 
Wages," etc. 



BANKING. 



Make your notes payable at the bank where yoa 
keep your deposit. Keep a careful record of the dates 
of maturity. It is customary with nearly all banks ta 
notify the makers of notes a few days before they are 
due ; but this is only an act of courtesy and not an 
obligation. If another bank holds your note get your 
banker to certify your check, or, otherwise, take the 
actual cash with you to pay it. When the third day 
of grace falls on a Sunday, or on a holiday, payment 
must be made upon the preceding business day. The 
law regarding endorsements on notes applies the same 
to endorsements on checks. 

Much of the bank's profit is made by loaning 
money on business paper, that is, on notes from 
houses in good financial standing, which the bank 
discounts. Suppose, for instance, that you receive 
a note from a customer of yours for $500 due in two 
months. You need the cash. To get it, you endorse 
the note and turn it over to your bank. If the note is 
pronounced a safe investment by the directors of the 
bank, the amount less the discount, which in this in- 
stance would be six or seven dollars, will be credited 
to your account. 

The clearing lions e is a place to which bankers in 
commercial centres are in the habit of sending clerks 
with various bills and checks upon other banks, re- 
ceived in the regular course of business. The repre- 
sentatives of the different institutions exchange checks 
or drafts, and the balance, on one side or the other, is 
paid either in cash or clearing-house certificates. This^ 
business custom has greatly simplified commercial 
transactions. 

In ordinary every- day business affairs, always write 
your name the same. To the business world your- 
signature becomes as familiar as your face. When 
affixing your name to deeds, mortgages, wills, and in- 
struments of a permanent nature, always write your 
name in full. Don't use your ordinary business initials 
for documents of this kind. Don't trifle with your 
signature by writing your name on slips, of paper and 
69 



NOV 2a tt^i^ 

PAY TO THE" ORDER OF 

Messrs P A. McTAVISHJJ^'Sn^EMAN 

an4C F DEACON, or a^h^^^hem 

POR COLLECTION q^iscT^UNT Op 

THE OUEBEC^^TORONTa 








. »N THE 




BANKING. 



leaving them around loosely. They may fall into evil 
hands, and give you occasion for regret. 

As a general rule, checks should be deposited 
within a few days after they are received. 

Money can be sent to a distant point by various 
methods. You can send your own check but the per- 
son receiving it will have to return it through his local 
bank to your bank for collection. You can buy a draft 
from your banker which will be in reality his check on 
his bank in New York, Chicago, or some other central 
city. All banks keep money on deposit in other larger 
banks. Such a draft, commonly called a cashier's 
■check, can easily be cashed in any city. Money can 
be sent through express companies, either in packages, 
or by express orders. Money can be sent through 
the post-office either by registered letter or by 
money-order. Sums under five dollars can be sent 
by postal notes. These are not absolutely safe for 
the reason that any one can cash them at any large 
post-office. Money can be sent by telegraph either 
through the telegraph companies or through the ex- 
press companies. 

All checks, after having been paid, are cancelled 
and returned, about the first of each month. They 
should be carefully filed away for references as 
receipts. 

If you hold an endorsed note, be careful when 
the note becomes due, not to agree to an extension of 
time without the consent in writing of the endorser. 
It may be best to draw up a new note, and have both 
signatures renewed. 

When making a payment of interest or principal 
■on a note, see that the amount paid and the date are 
written on the back of the note. 

If you sell a note payable to your order, it will be 
necessary for you to write your name upon the back, in 
•order that it may be legally transferred. With the 
-name thus upon the back, you must consider yourself 
responsible for the payment of the note, in case the 
maker fails to pay. But if you wish to sell the note 
and to be relieved of further responsibility, you must 
write on the back, over your signature the words, 
" Without recourse.'''* 

If a person holds notes against you that are secured 
T3y mortgage, mark them paid when they are paid 
but do not destroy them until the last one has been 
paid and the mortgage discharged. 



INTERESTING 

(ieo(^rapl7ieai QomparisoQ$. 



Asia is more than four times as large as Europe, 
and considerably larger than North and South Amer- 
ica together. 

The United States and Europe are almost equal 
in area. 

British India is more than half as large as the 
United States. 

Canada is nearly equal in area to the United States 
including Alaska. 

Ireland and Indiana are about the same size. 

You could take enough land from Texas to make 
England, Ireland, Scotland, Belgium, the Netherlands, 
Switzerland and Denmark, and still have enough left 
to make Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, 
New Hampshire, Vermont, Delaware, New Jersey, 
Maryland, and Indiana. (See opposite page.) 

The island of Cuba and Tennessee are equal in 
area. 

If all the people of the United States and Canada 
were placed in Texas, the number of persons to the 
square mile would be fewer than at present in China. 

Colorado is as large as New York, Pennsylvania, 
and New Jersey together. 

It would take ten states as large as Massachusetts 
to make a state as large as Kansas. 

There are twenty-seven states each larger than New 
York. 

Massachusetts is smaller than either New Hamp- 
shire or Vermont. 

Minnesota is twice the size of Ohio. 

72 





- t^ex I CO 



GEOGRAPHICAL COMPARISONS. 



The three states bordering on the Pacific are larger 
than the thirteen states bordering on the Atlantic. 

Montana is thirty times larger than Connecticut. 

Iowa is five times as large as Belgium, and four 
times as large as Denmark. 

Maryland and Switzerland are about the same 
.size. 

London is as large as New York City, Chicago, 
Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, and Cincinnati to- 
gether. 

Japan is equal in area to Montana, and supports 
more than half as many people as there are now in the 
United States. 

Ireland had double the population in 1841 that she 
ias at present. 

France is about equal in size to Colorado and Ari- 
:zona. 

The Argentine Republic is one-third as large as 
tthe United States. 

New Mexico is about the same size as England, 
Ireland and Scotland together. 

Nebraska is three times as large as Greece. 

Germany is as large as Nevada and Oregon 
.together. 

Russia is two and one-half times as large as the 
United States. 

The United States is just one hundred times as 
large as the State of Indiana. 

Chicago is scarcely one third of the distance across 
the continent. 

Rome and Chicago are on the same parallel of 
latitude. 

London is much farther north of the equator than 
IVinnipeg. 



mmtpiuc 



l^^g^tiOWTO-KEEPACOnnoN-SETorBooKS^ 

INTRODUCTORY NOTES. 

Every person, whether actively engaged in business 
or not, should keep a systematic record of his 
dealings with others. There are certain well defined 
principles which should always be adhered to, but the 
application of these must ever depend largely on the 
nature of the transactions recorded. 

A person who buys an article or employs the labor 
of another, for which he does not pay at the time, is 
said to become indebted for it, and is called a debtor. 

A person who sells an article or performs labor for 
another, without receiving his pay at the time, is said 
to give credit for it, and is called a creditor. 

Cash includes specie, bank notes, and checks. 

An invoice is an itemized statement of articles 
sold, with the date of sale, and the prices. 

The assets or resources indicate the entire prop- 
erty belonging to a business. Liabilities are debts, 
and include all which the business owes, both on 
account and on notes. 

In these few pages the author has endeavored to explain in a 
very simple way the best method of keeping a common set of 
books. It is not necessary to keep an elaborate system of 
accounts for an ordinary retail, country or town store. The books 
must be neat, accurate, and convenient of reference. These are 
the chief essentials. 

BOOKS NECESSARY. 

Let us imagine, for illustration, the business of a 
merchant in a country town. Suppose his stock 
to consist of both dry goods and groceries, and also 
that he buys eggs and butter from his farm customers. 
Let his sales be for cash, trade, and on credit. For 
such a business the following books are necessary : 

I. Sales-book. This book should be kept open 
in a convenient part of the store so that clerks 
can make the credit at entries the time of sales. If 
76 



BOOK KEEPING. 



one particular clerk makes all the entries, the clerk 
who makes the sale should take down the necessary 
items and hand to the other. Of course only credit 
sales are entered in the sales-book, except at the end 
of the day when the total cash received during the 
day is entered as "Cash sales this day;" then this 
amount added to the sum of the credit sales as shown 
on the sales-book will give the total business for the 
day. 

2. Cash-book. This is a very easy book to keep 
but the greatest care should be taken to keep it in a 
neat and absolutely accurate way. The cash on hand 
or in the till at the end of the day should always equal 
the cash on hand as shown in the cash-book. If a 
bank account is kept it is better to enter in the cash- 
book the amount deposited just the same as though it 
were paid out. Bills and accounts paid by check 
should be entered in the bank-book and not the cash- 
book, and should be transferred when necessary from 
the bank-book to the ledger. It is easier and simpler 
to keep the bank items and cash items separate in this 
way. 

3. Bill-book. If you give or take many notes 
you should buy a regularly printed bill-book in which 
to make your memoranda. In this way your bills 
payable and bills receivable can very easily be referred 
to. 

4. Stock-book. When you are buying stock 
including farm produce, from time to time. Write in 
it at the beginning of your year the actual (cost) value 
of the stock on hand, and then as new stock comes 
into the store make an entry for each purchase. When 
a quantity is bought from your wholesale house, simply 
enter the total amount of the invoice, and file the 
invoice in your invoice book or in a file for this purpose. 
This book will show the total amount of new goods 
and produce which you add to your stock each month, 
and will be very convenient for reference. 

5. Ledger. This, of course, will be your prin- 
cipal book. In it you will open accounts with all 

77 



BOOK KEEPING. 



persons from whom you buy on credit and to whom 
you sell on credit. A transaction might be at once 
entered under its proper head in the ledger but for the 
liability to error in the hurry of business; and it is 
better to make a record of the day's business by itself^ 
making the original entries in your sales-book for 
merchandise sold and in your stock-book for merchan- 
dise bought. The items should be transferred from 
these books to the ledger at the close of the day. 
For ordinary accounts it is not necessary to have the 
ledger pages divided into debit and credit sides as in 
double entry. If you have dealings with a man from 
whom you buy on credit and to whom you sell on 
credit, it is best to take two pages of your ledger 
facing each other, putting the debit articles, or the 
things bought, on the left hand page, and the credit 
articles, or the things sold, on the right hand page. 
In the exercises which follow the several books are 
fully illustrated. 



IMAGINARY TRANSACTIONS. 

The following transactions are such as might be 
recorded in a single day by a general merchant in a 
country town. These transactions are given to illus- 
trate how they should appear in his account books. 
Suppose the cash on hand the evening before as 
shown by the cash-book and the till, is $47.60, and 
consider the day to be 

Thursday, Nove7nbe7xj, i8g2. 



I 

2 


Sold T. R. Walmsley on account 

5 yds white Flannel, 38c. 1.90 

6 yds. Print, 12c. .72 
12 lbs. Sugar, 7c. .84 
2 lbs. Tea, 45c. .90 

Bought of Mrs. Thomas Gilray, 42 lbs. 
of Butter at 27 cents, and sold her 


4 


36 




groceries in full payment. 


II 


34 


3 


Received from Thomas Jordan, cash $12, 
being rent for October for House 
on Centre St. 







78 



BOOK KEEPING. 



4 


Sold John Knott on account 

3 lbs. Coffee, 35c. 1.05 
2 pairs Boots, 2.50, 3.00 5.50 








I Derby Hat, 2.00 


8 


55 


5 


Paid my clerk, Harry Wallace, ^20 being 
wages for October. 






6 


Received from C. F. Snelgrove on ac- 
count $15. 






7 


Bought of Mrs. Richard Ball 12 doz. 
Eggs at 13c., and 24 lbs. Butter at 
28c. Credit account with the 
amount. 






8 


Paid Advertising in " Weekly Leader " 
for October, ^8.50. 






9 


Sold P. M. Pierce as follows 

13 yds. Cotton, iic. 1.43 
8 yis. Tweed 1.25 10.00 
4 yds. Flannel, .55 2.20 








5 ibs. Tea, .60 3.00 


16 


63 




Received ^12 cash. Balance on account. 






10 


Bought 6 Turkeys for cash, $7.45. 






II 


Received from A. Riley the sum $18.50 
in full of account for October. 






12 


Cash sales this day 


33 


64 



These twelve items cover a variety of transactions. 
They are numbered simply for reference in the hints 
and suggestions which follow. Your sales-book. 
or blotter should contain the items just about as 
they are printed here. By carryiiig out items i, 2, 4, 9 
and 12 to a separate right-hand column, you can foot 
it up at the end of the day and find that your total 
sales (not your total receipts) for the day have been 
$84.52. Of course you do not take any record of the 
cash sales. All cash received is put in the till and 
the actual amount received can be found by counting 
it. It is best, however, for each salesman, when he 
makes a cash sale, to put the amount on a ticket 
and put the ticket, with the cash, in the till. These 
tickets can be added up at the end of the day and the 
amount compared with the cash. Note the following 

79 



BOOK KEEPING. 



Hints and Suggestions. 

No. I. This transaction must be entered in Walmsley's account 
in the Ledger. 

No. 2. In this transaction the amount is written out in the 
column to denote the sales. The purchase of the butter will 
appear in the stock-book. It is not necessary to write Mrs. • 
Gilray's name except for reference. 

No. 3. This transaction will appear in the Cash Book. If the 
money is placed in the till, care must be taken not to count it in 
with the day's cash sales. If an account is kept with Jordan in 
the Ledger, the item might be entered there also. 

No. 4. This transaction will be treated the same as No, i. 

No. 5. This item will appear in the Cash Book. The cash 
should not be taken from the money received during the day except 
a ticket be placed in the till for it, so there will be no trouble 
about adding up the day's sales. 

No. 6. Enter in the Cash Book, also credit Snelgrove's account 
in the Ledger. 

No. 7. Enter in the Stock Book to show merchandise, or 
produce bought. Credit Richard Ball's account in the Ledger 
just the same as though he had paid the amount in cash. 

No. 8. Enter in the Cash Book. If an account is kept with 
,the "Leader" in the Ledger enter the item there. As a general 
rule it is best not to open accounts in your Ledger where you owe 
others and where you pay the bills almost as soon as they are 
rendered. Have the bills receipted and file them. This is all that 
is necessary. 

No. 9. Enter in P. M. Pierce's account in the Ledger, charging 
him with all the items and then giving him credit for $12. The 
cash payment should appear also in your Cash Book. This item 
should not appear in the first cash sales but rather as money paid 
on account. 

No. 10. Enter in Stock Book, also in Cash Book. 

No. II. Enter in Cash Book, and credit Riley's account in the 
Ledger. Note that this item is not carried out. It must not be 
counted in as part of the day's sales. 

No. 12. Enter in Cash Book. 

In the illustrations which follow these twelve trans- 
actions appear as they should appear in the other 
books. The items should be entered in the Cash 
Book daily. The items for the other books may be 
transferred anytime when it is convenient. As soon 
as an item is posted from the Sales Book, or Blotter, 
write a blue pencil check mark (sj) in front of it to 
show that it has been entered. 



BOOK KEEPING. 



Cash^ Nov ember y i8g2. 



Nov 



Balance on hand 

Received this day 

T. Jordan, Rent 12.00 

C. F. Snelgrove, acct. 15.00 

P. M. Pierce, acct. 12.00 

A. Riley, acct. 18-50 

Cash Sales 33-64 



Cash paid this day 

Harry Wallace, w^ages 20.00 

Weekly Leader 8 50 

Produce (Turkeys) 7.45 

Balance on hand 



47 



91 



35 



60 



14 

74 

95 
79 



The balance on hand should agree exactly with 
the amount in the till. If money is taken out for 
private use during the day, write the amount on a 
slip of paper and put it in the till. Enter all such 
items in the Cash Book. If your cash does not 
balance don't leave until you find out where the mis- 
take is. 

Slock Account, November, i8g2. 



Nov 



Produce bought this day 

42 lbs. Butter, 27c. ii-34 
12 doz. Eggs, 13c. 1.56 

24 lbs. Butter, 28c. 6.72 

6 Turkeys, 7. 45 



27 



07 



It is not necessary to enter from whom bought. 
The month's purchases should be footed up, so that, 
at the end of the year, the gross purchases can be 
added to the purchases made from your wholesale 
houses, records of which are best kept by filing the 
invoices in an invoice book. It is rather difficult to 
give a good illustration of the Ledger without having 



BOOK KEEPING. 



a larger number of transactions than are recorded in 
one day's business. The accounts below show how 
the particular items of this day should be entered : 



T. R. Walmsley. 



Nov 



5 yds. Flannel, 38c. 1.90, 6 yds. 
Print, I2C. 72c., 12 lbs. Sugar, 
7c., 84c., 2 lbs. Tea, 45c. 90c. 



36 



If T. R. Walmsley should pay cash on account 

vjriiQ ^^ credit by cash,''^ giving the date, and enter the 
amount in the right-hand money column. The left- 
hand money column is the debit column. The 
amount we give out, whether goods, or cash, or labor, 
is written there. The right-hand money column is 
the credit column. In it we write what we receive, 
whether goods, or services, or cash. John Knott's 
account will be similar to T. R. Walmsley's. In C. F. 
Snelgrove's account we simply enter ^^ Credit by cask 
J515." Write the amount in the right-hand column. 

Richard Ball. 



Nov 



Credit by Eggs and Butter as per 
stock Book. 



90 



It is not necessary to write out the items again. 
When making out Richard Ball's bill simply write 
'■''credit by eggs and butter $12.90," just as though he 
had paid this amount in cash. Of course, we presume 
here that several other transactions have been pre- 
viously entered in his account. 

P. M. Pierce. 



Nov 



13 yds. Cotton, iic. 1.43, 
8 yds. Tweed, 1.25, 
10.00, 4 yds. Flannel, 
55c., 2.20, 5 lbs. Tea, 
60c. 3.00. 
Credit by Cash 



16 



^Z 



BOOK KEEPING. 



When entering an item such as that given in 
transaction No. ii, it would be well to close up the 
account. The account for the next month can be 
opened immediately under the closing lines. 

GENERAL INFORMATION. 

The value of the goods can be known only by 
accurate count and estimation, and must be clearly 
stated both at the beginning and at the end of a term 
of business. An inventory should be taken yearly. 
This should show the goods on hand at the beginning 
of the year, the goods bought during the year, and the 
goods remaining on hand. The balance sheet 
should show the resources and liabilities both at the 
beginning and at the end of the year. It should really 
be an abridged history of the business. Every business 
man should know exactly what his profits and losses 
have been. Wrong estimates are ruinous, and it is 
better to see the truth than to continue an enterprise 
* on a mistaken basis. 

You should keep a stock or capital account in 
your Ledger. This should show the original capital 
which you invested, and the yearly additions. This 
account may be opened under your own name. Credit 
it with the cash and other resources invested and 
debit it with your liabilities. Debit this account with 
the sum total of the moneys or goods which you draw 
from the business for your private use. The net 
loss is also debited to it, and the net gain credited. 

Although the merchant's account-books are his 
private records, they also partake of the nature of a 
trust, and should bear internal evidence of being kept 
honestly and in good faith. They should be 
competent to bear the scrutiny of creditors, if it 
become expedient or necessary. If errors are made, 
they should be so corrected as to show the original 
error, and the reason for its correction. Account- 
books should be so plain and clear as to be understood 
at once by a stranger who sees them for the first time, 
and explicit and ample enough for the guidance of an 
executor or administrator, in case of the merchant's 
death. 

Note. — For the boy who is studying at home, for the merchant 
whose business is increasing, for the young man ambitious to 
become a book-keeper, and for the experienced accountant who 
is looking for the newest ideas about the management of " A i " 
city houses, there is no better or more complete work on Book- 
keeping than that written and published by J. H. Goodwin. 



83 




Curious Questions. 

1. What is cold ? 

2. Where do figures go when you rub them out ? 

3. What lake is more wet than any other in the 
world? {Wetter.) 

4. When does water run up hill? {As sap iit trees.) 

5. Why does running make one warm ? 

6. What was the original " Baker's Dozen ?" 

It was the Devil's dozen, thirteen being the number 
of witches supposed to sit down together at their great 
meeting. Hence the superstition about thirteen at a 
table. The baker was an unpopular character and be- 
came a substitute for Satan. 

7. What is the name of the oldest street in the 
world ? (The street which is named Straight^ in 
Damascus.) 

8. Into what American college are ministers not 
allowed to enter ? 

Girard College, Philadelphia. Due to a noted 
peculiarity of the will of Stephen Girard who was an 
infidel. 

9. Which are the unlucky days for matrimony ? 
Prospective brides may be interested to learn that 

there are thirty-two days in the year on which it is un- 
lucky to marry, according to the authority of a manu- 
script dated in the fifteenth century. These days are 
January i, 2,4, 5, 7, 10, 15; February 6,7, 18; March 
I, 6, 8; April 6, 11 ; May 5, 6, 7 ; June 7, 15, July 5, 
19; August 15, 19; September 6, 7: October 6; 
November 15, 16; and December 15, 16, and 17. Con- 
sequently January is the worst month and October the 
best month in the year for marriage. 

10. Where is the most remarkable echo in the 
world ? 

The most noted one known is that on the north side 
of a church of Shipley, England ; it repeats twenty-one 
syllables. 

11. When was the year without a summer? 

The year 18 16. Old New England farmers formerly 
referred to this year as " eighteen hundred and froze to 
death." June, July and August were noted for snow 

85 



CURIOSITIES. 



and ice all through New England and the Atlantic 

States. 




12. What common animal has four toes on each 
liind foot ? 

13. Have sheep front teeth ? Have cows .'* 

14. Can you see steam ? 

15. What is the Algebraic Paradox ? 

The proof that 2 = 1. It is shown as follows : 

.AT = 7' ; 

jr^ == r^ or jf X ?' ; 
(x -\- r) {x — ;-) = {x — r). 
Cancelling the two quantities x — r, as their division 
is equal, — that is, they balance each other, there is^ 
left 

X -[- r = jr ; 

2x -=. X ; 

— the number i being understood before all single 
quantities. 

16. Why does a lamp smoke when the wick is 
trimmed unevenly .'' 

17. What is smoke } 

18. What is weight .^ 

19. Which is heavier a pound of feathers or a 
pound of geld ? 

20. Why will hot iron bend more easily than cold : 

86 




Under this heading we give a full and complete 
explanation of some peculiarities of figures which have 
been taken advantage of in framing rules for shorten- 
ing the process of multiplication. 



Multiply 34 by 36. 

Note these numbers. The left-hand figures 

34- are the same and the right-hand figures add 

36 to ten. To find the product, say 6 times 4 

I 224 ^^® ^4' P^tti^g down both figures ; carry one^ 

and say 4 times 3 are 12, putting down both 

figures. Always carry one. Note the numbers to which 

this rule applies. 



12 

18 

21 
29 

31 
39 

41 
49 

51 
59 

61 
69 

71 
79 

81 
89 

91 
99 



13 14 

J7 _16 

22 23 

28 27 

32 33 

38 37 

42 43 

48 47 

52 53 

58 57 

62 63 

68 67 

72 73 

78 77 

82 83 

88 87 

92 93 

98 97 



15 
J5 

24 25 

26 25 

34 35 

36 35 

44 45 

46 45 

54 55 

56 55 

64 65 

66 65 

74 75 

76 75 

84 85 

86 85 

94 95 

96 95 

87 



In the teens. 
In the twenties. 
In the thirties. 
In the forties. 
In the fifties. 
In the sixties. 
In the seventies. 
In the eighties. 
In the nineties. 



SHORTHAND MULTIPLICATION. 



This rule applies also to numbers of more than two 
figures each. Note the following examples : 



1 12 
i 18 


1 13 
1 17 


1 14 
1 16 


1 15 
1 15 


123 
127 


129 
121 


132 
138 


193 
197 


194 
196 


295 
295 


392 
398 


393 
397 


491 
499 


792 
798 


996 
994 



The difficulty, if any, will arise in multiplying the 
two left-hand figures of each, for instance, in 132 by 
138, we say 8 times 2 are sixteen, then carry one, and 14 
times 13 are 172, giving the answer 17,216. When we 
carry 07te to 39, for instance, w^e make it 40, and the 
product of 40 and 39 is easily obtained by mental pro- 
cess. 

Multiply 66 by 82. 

Here the two figures of one product are 

66 the same and the two figures of the other 

82 product add to ten. The rule is the same. 

g^l I 2 Twice 6 are 12, put down both figures ; carry 

one, and 9 times 6 are 54, giving the product 

5412. Note a few of the numbers to which this rule 

applies : 

22 22 22 22 22 22 

73 64 55 28 82 37 



22 
91 


22 
19 


22 
46 


33 
73 


33 
37 


33 
82 


44 
91 


55 
82 


66 

73 


77 
64 


88 
46 


99 
28 



Multiply 31 by 68. 

,The complevient of a number is the number which 
added to it makes an even ten, or an even loo, or an 
even looo. Thus the complement of 8 is 2, of 93 is 
7, etc. 

The complement of 8 is 2. Now suppose for the 8 
in this example we put 2 and then by cross-multiplica- 
tion we have 3 X 2^6 X i- Whenever (by the use 
of one complement) the products by cross- 
3 I multiplication are equal this same rule ap- 
68 plies. In this example say 8 times i are 08, 
2 I 08 c^^^y ^^^^ ^i^d s^y 1 times 3 are 21, which gives 
as product 2108. This adds a very large num- 



SHORTHAND MULTIPLICATIOX. 



ber of numbers to our list. Note the following and 
apply the rule to each : 



13 
24 


13 
31 


14 
22 


28 
16 


17 
26 


24 
18 


48 
18 


22 
19 


21 
48 


21 
67 


22 
46 


23 
44 



23 24 39 24 26 36 
61 34 24 42 31 26 



48 
26 


46 
27 


69 
27 


42 
29 


63 
29 


84 
29 


31 
68 


31 
97 


32 
66 


32 
94 


48 
34 


34 
62 


36 
42 


68 
36 


64 
38 


96 
38 


93 
39 


41 
88 


42 
86 


43 
84 


46 
61 


86 
47 


63 
48 


84 
48 


82 
49 


93 
68 


96 
66 


12 
26 


88 
55 


62 
97 



This application of this rule holds good also with 
numbers of three figures each, or numbers where one 
factor contains three figures and the other two. It 
holds good also in fractional numbers. Note the fol- 
low^ing examples: 



128 
94 


146 

77 


126 
86 


328 
88 


246 
49 


105 
143 


147 
124 


246 
127 


168 
181 


164 
283 


43 
121 


53 
151 


62 
242 


84 
143 


92 
186 



This same simple rule applies also to fractional num- 
bers, more especially to numbers where only one of the 
factors is fractional. Note the following examples, and 
in finding the product, say 6^ times 7 are 45^ and put 
down the w^hole product ; then carry 07i£, and say 5 
times 8 are 40, giving the answer 4045^. 

87 93 42 65 49 
46i 481 38i 37i 17f 

74 34 63 37 98 
38f 701 38* 171 37i 



SHORTHAND MULTIPLICATION. 



The author does not claim that this application is 
practical, for the reason that the application of the 
rule cannot be seen at a glance. It shows, however, to 
what extent this very simple discovery can be carried. 
The rule applies also in quite large numbers. Note 
the following : 

276 843 I 1 27 2568 
362 I 126 1282 2243 

Multiply 76 by 36. 

yg This is a modification of the same rule. 

36 ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ left-hand figures add to ten and 

^ the right-hand figures are the same. The 

2T3w process is as follows : 

6x6=36 
7x3+6=27 

Instead of carrying one, you carry one of the unit 
numbers (in this instance six,) and add it, not to either 
of the tens, but to their product. Note the following 
examples 

26 25 24 23 22 21 

86 85 84 83 82 81 

27 28 29 31 32 33 

87 88 89 71 72 73 

34 35 36 37 38 39 
74 75 76 77 78 79 

41 42 43 44 45 46 
61 62 63 64 65 66 

47 48 49 51 52 53 
67 68 69 51 52 53 

54 55 56 57 58 59 
54 55 56 57 58 59 

The same rule applies to larger numbers. In the 
following examples add double the unit figure. Al- 
ways add double when the sum of the tens is 20 ; when 
30, add three times the unit number and so on. 

126 6x 6=36 

86 8xl2x(doubie6)=l08 
10836 

90 



SHORTHAND MULTIPLICATION. 



133 
73 


134 
74 


135 

75 


136 
76 


137 
77 


142 
62 


143 
63 


144 
64 


145 
65 


146 
68 


151 
51 


153 
53 


154 

54 


157 

57 


159 
59 


162 
48 


B63 
43 


165 

45 


167 
47 


161 
41 


183 

23 


184 
24 


185 
25 


186 
26 


188 
28 



Multiply 32 by 52. 

Here the left-hand figures add to 8, and the right- 
hand figures are the same. Instead of saying twice 

two, take the comple- 

32 8X8=64 ments 8 and 8 and 

52 5x3+2—1 = 16 multiply them for the 

I 664 ^^^^ ^^^ figures of 

the product. Find 
the remaining figures as in the last rule, only subtract 
orie in every case from your result. Five times 3 plus 2 
less I equals 16. Apply this modification to the fol- 
lowing examples : 

23 24 25 26 27 28 
63 64 65 66 67 68 



32 
52 


33 
53 


34 
54 


35 
55 


36 
56 


39 
59 


41 
41 


32 
42 


43 
43 


44 
44 


45 
45 


47 
47 


13 
73 


14 
74 


15 

75 


16 
76 


17 
77 


18 
78 



The same rule applies to larger numbers. When the 
sum of the tens is i8, add double one of the unit num- 
bers ; when 28, add three times the unit number, and 
so on. Note the following examples : 

124 125 123 128 127 
64 65 63 68 67 

91 



SHORTHAND MULTIPLICATION. 



231 232 233 234 239 
51 52 53 54 59 

542 643 744 849 947 
42 43 44 49 47 

When the sum of the left-hand figures is 5 and the 
right-hand figures are ahke, add one-half of the like 
number to the product of the left-hand numbers, as : 

If the right-hand 
36 6^6=36 numbers are odd, it 

26 3X2+(iof6)=9 will be impossible to 
Q3Q take an even half. The 

difficulty can be over- 
come by making the half a decimal Siwd adding it in. 
In this example, if it were 37 by 27, the product would 
be Q99. Here we have 7 times 7 are 49, and 50 (the 
decimal of 3^- or 3.50) makes 99. If the sum of the 
left-hand figures is 15, add 07te and fie ha:/ Xim.Q's, the 
equal wnmb^r \ if the sum is 25, add two and one half 
times the ^^2/^/ number. Note the following exam.ples 
and apply this rule to each : 



32 
22 


34 
24 


38 
28 


31 
21 


33 
23 


35 

25 


37 
27 


45 
15 


47 
17 


46 
16 


48 
18 


49 
19 



86 84 35 83 82 88 

76 74 75 73 72 78 

63 64 65 66 67 62 

93 94 95 96 97 92 

The same rule applies to numbers of more than two 

figures each. Note the following : 

135 127 172 169 238 

25 37 182 199 328 



When the sum of the left-hand figures is 3, or 13, or 
23, proceed as when 5, or 15, or 25, only deduct one 
from your left-hand total. That is, when you find the 
product of the left-hand numbers, deduct one^ then add 
as before. 

There are many other modifications, rules and 
exceptions. These, however, are the most practical, 
and will be found of great benefit to all who give them. 
study. 

92 









NECESSARY QUALIFICATIONS. 

You cannot get out a newspaper by simply turn- 
ing a crank. The chief thing needful is capacity. 
Brains have to be well mixed with printers' ink and 
machinery. 

Only long years of experience, and patient, 
unwearying application, backed by a natural fund of 
common sense and sound judgment, and a love for the 
business, can ever make a proficient editor. This 
Tiew may appear discouraging; but the man who 
intends to adopt journalism as his business, and is 
ambitious to deserve the title of editor, may as well 
make up his mind at the start that he has a stupen- 
dous task before him, and look upon his first three or 
four years of labor in that sphere as a rigorous appren- 
ticeship, in which he must work hard and exercise an 
uncommon amount of patience. 

There are but few thorough editors who have not, 
at one time or other, been reporters ; and there are 
many excellent newspaper men who do both editing 
and reporting with equal facility. A good reporter 
must be a short-hand writer, although there are 
many reporters doing special work who are not ; he 
must be a news-gatherer, and, if he is a good one, he 
will aim to collect all the facts possibly obtainable 
relative to any event he is detailed to write up, and to 
relate them in good, plain and simple language. 
Neither the ability to write verbatim, nor a good 
memory is so much to be desired as the ability to 
write a condensed report intelligibly. The experi- 
enced newspaper reporter avoids the error of having a 
two-column report cut down to six inches. 

Don't run away with the idea, however, that because 
you can write shorthand, you are qualified to be a 
reporter. Reporters are created by a long and varied 
experience. They must be educated in the ways of 

93 



REPORTING. 



the world, understand the intricacies of public life, 
and possess faculties which find no place a in school 
curriculum. Newspaper men are not easily manufac- 
tured by any process of education. Their calling is 
one that requires peculiar qualities. The best men 
gradually work their way up from the composing 
room, the office, or the country paper. 

As to the style in which a paragraph should be written, the 
simpler the better. American newspapers, however, prefer a 
florid style. "This will never do," said a local editor to a new 
reporter. " You say that * the man was killed.' That is too 
tame. You should have said that * he was crushed into a shapeless 
mass,' or * his reeking corpse presented a ghastly sight.' Then 
you make the bald statement that 'the doctor was not needed.' 
'The services of a physician were not called into requisition,' 
that's how you should have put it. That's journalism, that is. 
Then you say nothing of the * sickening spectacle,' and you are 
painfully neglectful of the fact that * the man's features were dis- 
torted out of all semblance to humanity,' and you haven't a word 
to say of 'scattered fragments,' or of * blood,' or of 'bruises,' 
or 'the screams of the horrified spectators.' No, it will never 
do ; journalism has no use for you, young man." 

In the position of sub-editor there is no language, 
no knowledge, no sort of information, no kind of 
experience in business, in literature, in pleasure, in 
law, and indeed, in anything in human life, that will 
not come in useful, and increase the professional 
capacity of the man who possesses it. 

The interviewer is a creation of American civil- 
ization. A famous Englishman was asked in Chicago, 
by a reporter, for some particulars of his private life. 
He replied that he hadn't a private life; it was 
stopped at the custom house in New York. The 
qualifications of a successful interviewer are as varied 
as his work. 

Newspapers ignore the really good news of the 
day. Every nerve is strained in order to photograph 
the worst features of our civilization. The squabbles 
of political parties, the latest murder or hanging, the 
silliest breach of promise case or scandal, the latest 
betting or horse-racings- these form the principal 
contents of the average daily paper. Sensationalism is 
the keynote. 

94 




KINDS OF LETTERS. 

The primary idea of a letter is conversation at a 
distance. If this be kept in mind, one can scarcely 
fail to write appropriately, if one can converse 
properly; for a letter may be familiar or reserved, 
jocular or dignified, according to the relations between, 
the writer and the person addressed. 

Letters of friendship should be simple and 
natural. It is the little things, the incidents of every 
day life, the home-chat which makes a friendship let- 
ter interesting. Letters of courtesy include invita- 
tions, acceptances, letters of congratulation, of con- 
dolence, of introduction, and of recommendation. 
Letters of business include all correspendence 
regarding business affairs. Public letters embrace 
communications to newspapers regarding public af- 
fairs. Frequently a writer publishes a letter addressed 
to some prominent person, criticising his opinions or 
his actions, or putting to him a number of formal 
questions with the view of receiving a published 
reply. This is usually called an open letter. 

PARTS OF A LETTER. 

The parts of a letter are the heading, the address, 
the salutation, the body, the complimentary 
close, and the signature. 



42 Hollis St. 
Newton^ Mass.^ Aug. 16, ^8gj. 

Mr./ohn Adair ^ 

Toronto^ Ont. 

My dea}^ Sir: — / have this day received your 
favor enctosiiig a copy of the etc. 

This form indicates a good style for beginning an 
ordinary business letter. Bring the "My dear Sir," 
over to the left so that it will be flush with the " Mr. "^ 
and the left end of the second line. This is the most 
approved form, and it is certainly the neatest. See 
that your address at the top is full and complete^ 

95 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



Write the street, or the P. O. Box, or whatever sup- 
plemental address is necessary, just above the name of 
your post office. If your business letter is to a mar- 
ried woman, say' " My dear Madam " instead of 
"My dear Sir." If you are well acquainted with the 
man, drop the name and address, and write simply, 
" Dear Mr. Adair," or if a woman, write " Dear Mrs. 
Brown." If he is younger than you, either in years or 
experience, or even if he is on equality and is a warm 
friend, you might begin " My dear Mr. Adair." Note 
that when written this way " dear " is not written with 
a capital. If you are addressing a business letter to a 
young lady whom you do not know, simply write 
*' Miss Kate Stevenson," and begin your letter with- 
out any further introduction. If you are acquainted, 
either formally, or if your names are familiar one to 
the other, you may write " Dear Miss Stevenson." 
Of course when written in this way there is no other 
part to the salutation as in the business letter 
addressed to " John Adair," when his address is given. 
Friendly letters to men or boys may begin "My 
dear Charley " or " My dear Brown." The old forms 
*' Kind friend " or " Dear friend " are a good deal out 
of date. If you are addressing a business letter to a 
firm, write " Gentlemen " instead of *' My dear Sir." 
Never use the vulgar contraction " Gents." Neat- 
ness and correctness are essential in all corre- 
spondence. There is no excuse for a carelessly writ- 
ten letter. ^ 

There are towns and cities in different States and 
Provinces which have the same name. In writing 
from any such, even though it be a large and well- 
known place, be careful to add the name of the State 
or Province. Better put your street and number 
on every letter. Your correspondent does not want to 
spend an hour looking for an old letter containing 
your address. Don't crowd your letter. Leave a 
good inch at the top of the sheet perfectly blank. 

Titles should not be omitted, but they should be 
used sparingly. " Mr." is good enough for anybody 
from the President down. Never put on a title at 
each end or more than one at either end. Clergymen 
may be addressed "Rev." and physicians "Dr.," but 
even this formality is hardly necessary. 

The salutation of letters addressed to public 
officers should be quite formal if the letters relate to 
public affairs. In such letters the address is usually 
put at the close. 

Keep the margins of your letter even. Don't make 
many paragraphs. When a new paragraph is nec- 
essary, it should begin directly on a line with the first 

96 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



word of the body of the letter. Learn to write straight 
on unruled paper. 

The complimentary close follows the body of 
the letter, and immediately precedes the signature. 
The closing words should not be more familiar than 
the salutation, and, like the words of the salutation, 



Pai'don tne fo7' refei'ring to this subject a second 
ti77ie, and believe me^ 



Your true friend^ 

JERROLD BALL, 



they depend upon the relation between the two per- 
sons. '"''Respectfully yours ^^ " V^ery truly yours,"*^ 
*' Yours cordially y^ etc., are the usual closing words of 
formal correspondence. Letters of friendship admit 
of less formal terms. The first word only of the 
complimentary close should begin with a capital. 

Write your signature plainly. Your friends may 
be very familiar with your dashing ink lines, but the 
man who sees the name for the first time may have 
considerable difficulty in transforming it correctly into 
readable script. 

THREE IMPORTANT NOTES. 

Instant. The abreviated form is inst. In correspondence this 
word rnQdiXis present mo7ith. 

Ultimo. The abreviated form is nlto or tdt. In correspondence 
this Latin word means the niotith last past. 

Proximo. The abreviated form is prox. In correspondence 
this Latin word means next or coming month. 

THE ENVELOPE ADDRESS. 

Thirty thousand misdirected letters reach the dead 
letter office at Washington daily. The public need to 
be educated along this line. In addressing an envel- 
ope write first the name, then the postoffice, then the 
state. If additional matter, such as street, or box, or 
county, is necessary, put it at the lower left hand 
corner. Even in the case of large cities, it is necessary 
to write the name of the state, for there are in the 
United States, five New Yorks, nine Philadelj^hias, and 
twelve Bostons. Be particularly careful in writing the 
abbreviations of states. Thus N.Y. may easily be 
taken for N.J. ; Pa. for Va. ; Cal. for Col. ; Md. for 
Ind. ; Me. for Mo. Mail intended for people who will 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



be in a place only a day or two should have " transient " 
added to the address to distinguish from permanent 




residents. Write in the upper left-hand corner and en- 
close in brackets. Always put the stamp in the upper 
right-hand corner. Letters to be registered must have 
the name and address of the sender on the envelope. 




/TO DO 



Be honest and square in all your dealings. 

It makes little difference about the nature of the 
enterprise, so long as it is legitimate, its success or 
failure depends largely upon the personal industry 
and attention of its owner. 

Business will not run itself, neither will it run by 
simply turning a crank. 

Exercise common-sense economy, and cut off 
needless expenditure. 

Success of the lasting sort, the kind that has good 
staying qualities, does not usually come in a day. If 
you would reach the front and stay there, first care- 
fully choose your business, or occupation, and then 
concentrate your forces on that one thing. Don't 
expect big results at once. Be patient, "wait, 
work, stick. 

Do not be loose, careless, disorderly. The success- 
ful man has a time and place for everything. 

He is master of his business and does not allow it to 
master him. 

Don't be too eager to get rich. Better adopt and 
follow the slow^er but surer methods. 

To be successful in business, a man must have not 
only capital and favorable surroundings, but the train- 
ing which is the result of experience. 

Agreements and contracts should be in writing. 
Don't trust to your memory. Keep your accounts in 
perfect condition. 

In this age, and especially in this country, the word 
is push. The mere plodder is left far behind. It 
isn't enough to pound the iron when it is hot ; you 
must pound it till you make it hot. 
99 



HOW TO DO BUSINESS. 



Three changes in business equal a fire. It is as 
true to-day as ever that " a rolling stone gathers no 
moss." 

Success should come at the right end. An 
immense success at the outset is almost sure failure 
farther on. 

Be self-reliant. Do not be a mere imitator. We 
grow strong by expending our strength in manly con- 
flict with the obstacles which confront us. " The gods 
help those who help themselves." 

Select work for which you are fitted, learn it 
thoroughly, and entertain no thought of changing. Put 
forth your best efforts all the time. Respect yourself 
too much to hold your calling unworthy, bearing in 
mind the fact that the work is most honorable which 
is best done. 

The ambition to succeed may be and always 
ought to be a laudable one. It is emphatically an 
American ambition ; at once the national vice and the 
national virtue. It is the main-spring of activity ; the 
driving-wheel of industry ; the spur to intellectual and 
moral progress. It gives the individual energy; the 
nation push. It makes the difference between the 
people that are a stream and the people that are a 
pool; between America and China. It makes us at 
once active and restless; industrious and overworked; 
generous and greedy. When it is great, it is a virtue ; 
when it is petty, it is a vice. A petty ambition 
achieves the emblems and tokens of success ; a great 
ambition is the ambition to do and to be. 

Success is not fees, nor office, nor salary, nor land, 
nor goods, nor machinery: it is results obtained; 
harvests reaped, garnered, distributed ; humanity bet- 
tered ; the nation improved ; the world enriched. 
Every man who leaves his home, his village, his coun- 
try better for his thoughts and deeds has suc- 
ceeded ; every man who has not, has failed. 



NOTES AND DEFI;NITI0NS. 

A straight line is a line which does not change in its direction. 

Parallel lines are lines which always remain the same dis- 
tance from each other, however far they may be produced. 

The opening between two straight lines drawn from the same 
point is called an angle. 

When two straight lines cross each other so as to form four 
equal angles, the angles are called right angles. 

An angle greater than a right angle is called an obtuse 
angle, and an angle less than a right angle is called an acute 
angle. 

A surface has length and breadth without thickness. A pla7ie 
surface is a level surface. The amount of space over which a 
surface extends is called its area. 

A surface bounded by four straight lines, and having four right 
angles, is called a rectangle. 

A rectangle is called a square when its four sides are equal. 

The line joining two opposite corners of a square or rectangle is 
called the diagonal. 

A plane figure bounded by three straight lines is a triangle. 
The base of a triangle is the side on which it is supposed to rest. 

The altitude of a triangle is the perpendicular distance from 
the angle opposite the base to the base, or to the base produced, 

A four-sided plane figure having no two sides parallel is called a 
trapezium. 

The perimeter of a plane figure is the sum of its sides. 

A circle is a plane figure bounded by a curved line, every 
point of which is equally distant from a point within, called the 
centre. The boundary line is called the circumference. A 
straight line drawn through the centre and terminating at the cir- 
cumference on both sides is called a diameter. A straight line 
drawn from the centre to the circumference is called a radius. 

A solid has kngth, breadth, and thickness, or height. A cube 
is a sob d figure contained by six equal squares. A rectangular 
solid is a solid figure contained by six angular surfaces. 



MECHANICS ARITHMETIC. 



The volume of a rectangular solid is the portion of space which 
it occupies. 

A solid bounded by a curved surface, every point of which is 
equally distant from a point within, called the centre, is called a 
globe, or sphere. 

A cylinder is a solid figure described by the revolution of a 
rectangle about one of its sides, which remains fixed. An uncut 
lead-pencil is an example. 

MEASUREMENT TABLES. 

Lfinear measure is used in measuring lengths and distances. 
The table is as follows : 

X2 inches . . . . = i foot . ... ft. 

3 feet = 1 yard .... yd. 

5>i yards (i6>^ feet) = i rod . . . . rd. 

320 rods ,,... = I mile .... mi. 

Remember that i mile equals 1,760 yards. 

Surveyors' lineal measure is used by surveyors in measuring 
land and distances. The table is as follows : 



7.92 inches . . . 


. = I link . . 


. . /. 


25 links .... 


. = I rod . . 


. . rd. 


100 links (4 rods) . 


. = I chain 


. . ch. 


80 chains 


. = I mile 


. . mi. 





square 


foot 


. sq. 


ft. 




square 


yard 


. sq. 


yd. 




square 


rod 


. sq. 


rd. 




acre 




. A. 






square 


mile . 


sq. 


mi. 



Remember that a chain equals 66 feet or 4 rods. 

Surface measure is used in measuring surfaces. The table is 
as follows : 

J44 square inches 

g square feet 
30x4 square yards . 
160 square rods 
640 acres . ... 

A square measuring 208.714- feet on each side contains 
i acre. 

Surveyors' square measure is used by surveyors in computing 
the area of land. The table is as follows : 

625 square links . . = i square rod . sq. rd. 
16 square rods . . . = i square chain, sq. ch. 
10 square chains . . = i acre . . . . A. 

An acre equals 4,840 square yards. 



MECHANICS ARITHMETIC. 



Cubic measure is used to measure the contents or volume of 
solids. The table is as follows : 

1728 cubic inches . . = i cubic foot . cu. ft. 
27 cubic feet . . . = i cubic yard . cu. yd. 
128 cubic feet . . . = i cord . . . cd. 

MEASUREMENT OF RECTANGULAR PLANES. 

The area of any rectangle is expressed by the pro- 
duct of the length and the breadth. Before multiply- 
ing it is necessary that both dimensions be expressed in 
units of the same denomination. 

In the same manner, if a rectangle be 4 feet long 
and 3 feet broad, its area is 12 squa7^e feet ; that is, the 
rectangle might be divided into 12 equal figures, each 
being a foot long and a foot broad. 

MEASUREMENT OF RECTANGULAR SOLIDS. 

The volume of a rectangular solid is expressed by 
the product of the length, breadth, and height, when 
the three dimensions are expressed in units of the 
same denomination. 

To measure a solid block, or to find how much a 
box, a bin, or a cellar will contain, we have to ascer- 
tain, by actual measurement, its length, breadth, and 
depth, and with these three dimensions find the vol- 
ume by simple multiplication. Thus, if we desire to 
find the number of cubic yards of earth removed in 
digging a cellar 40 feet long, 18 feet wide, and 10 feet 
deep, we multiply 40, 18, and 10 together, and get 
7,200 feet, or 266| cubic yards. 

MEASUREMENT OF WOOD. 

Wood cut in lengths of 4 feet is called cord 
^A^ood. A pile of cord wood 4 feet high and 8 feet 
long, or equal bulk of other material, is called a cord. 

Thus a cord of wood is 8 feet by 4 feet by 4 feet, 
and contains 128 cubic feet. To find the number of 
cords in a pile of wood or bark piled in the form of a 
rectangular solid, find its solid contents or volume in. 
cubic feet, and divide the result by 128. 
103 



MECHANICS ARITHMETIC. 



MEASUREMENT OF LUMBER. 
Lumber, as the term is used here, includes all 
kinds of sawed boards, planks, scantlings, etc. 

A foot of lumber is i foot long, i foot wide, and i inch thick, 
and is used as the unit of lumber measurement. 

The term scantling is given to lumber 3 or 4 inches wide, and 
from 2 to 4 inches thick. Joist is usually narrow and deep. Lum- 
ber heavier than joist or scantling is called timber. Thick 
boards are called planks. The usual outside covering of wood 
houses is siding. 

All lumber less than i inch in thickness is considered 
inch lumber in measuring. 

In measuring the width of a board a fraction greater than a 
half-inch is called an inch, and if less than a half it is rejected. A 
board 5^ inches wide would be considered 6 inches wide. 

The price of lumber is usually quoted at a certain rate per 
thousand feet. 

A board 14 feet long, 12 inches wide, and i inch in thickness 
would contain (14 X 12 X i)-ri2, or 14 feet. A board 10 feet 
long, 16 inches wide, and 3 inches thick, would contain 
(10 X 16X 3)-r 12, or 40 feet. Note that in measuring 12-foot 
lumber, i inch or less in thickness, the width of the board in inches 
is the number of feet it contains. 

MEASUREMENT OF STONE WORK. 

A cord of stone is the same size as a cord of 
wood. In estimating stone-work no smaller part than 
quarter-cords is allowed. 

A cord of stone will make about 100 cubic feet of wall. 

In estimating the amount of stone or the cost of the 
mason-work, it is customary to measure around the outside of the 
wall, and make no allowance for openings except they are large. 

Three bushels of lime and a cubic yard of sand will lay a cord 
of stone. 

A perch of stone-work is 1 rod long, ij^ feet thick, and i foot 
high : it contains 24X cubic feet. A fractional part of a perch is 
reckoned as a perch. 

MEASUREMENT OF BRICK-WORK. 

Bricks vary so much in size and style that a table 
of exact dimensions is impracticable. Ordinary bricks 
are 8| inches long, 4 inches wide, and 2J inches high. 

It is sufficiently accurate to reckon 20 bricks to the cubic foot 
laid dry. 

In half-brick walls, such as are built in veneering wooden 

104 



MECHANICS ARITHMETIC. 



houses, each brick, with the mortar required to lay it, has an 
external surface of 3 inches by 9 inches, or a brick is required for 
each 27 inches of surface. 

In estimating material, corners are measured once, and 
allowance is made for doors and windows. In estimating labor, 
the corners are measured twice ; that is, the outside measurement 
is taken and usually one-half is deducted for openings. 

MEASUREMENT OF SHINGLING. 
Ordinary shingles have an average width of 4 
inches, and are generally laid 4 inches to the weather. 

A bunch of shingles contains a quarter of a thousand. It is 
20 inches wdde, and has 25 courses on each side. 

Allowing for waste, 1,000, or a square of shingles, will lay loo- 
square feet, four inches to the weather. 

MEASUREMENT OF LATHING. 

A bunch of laths contains 50 laths. Laths are 4 
feet long, i J inches wide, and are laid three-eighths of 
an inch apart. 

Allowing for waste, contractors reckon that a bunch of laths 
will cover 3 square yards. 

Lrathing is estimated by the square yard. Only one-half the 
smface of openings is deducted. 

MEASUREMENT OF PLASTERING. 
Plastering is estimated by the square yard. Only 
half the surface of openings is charged. 

MEASUREMENT OF PAINTING. 
Painting and kalsomining are estimated by the 
square yard. 

MEASUREMENT OF WALL-PAPER. 
"Wall-paper is sold only by the roll, any part of a 
roll being counted as a whole one. 

American paper is 18 inches wide, and has 24 feet in a single 
roll, and 48 feet in a double roll. 

Paper-hangers measure the distance around the room in feet 
and deduct 3 feet for each door or window. The difference 
divided by iK gives the number of strips. 

The exact cost of papering a room can be ascertained only by 
taking account of the number of rolls actually used in doing the 
work. 

105 




GENERAL INFORMATION. 

Organization. To organize a stock company, the 
persons interested come together and make a certifi- 
cate to the effect that they propose to form a corpora- 
tion to bear a certain name, and that the capital 
stock is to be a certain amount. This certificate is 
filed in the office of the Secretary of State, whereupon 
he issues a License to the persons making such certifi- 
cate. State laws regarding corporations differ, and 
concerns find it convenient often to get incorporated 
under the laws of a State other than the one in which 
they intend to do business. 

Shares. Certificates of stock are issued to each of 
the subscribers or purchasers. These certificates are 
transferable at the pleasure of the owners, except 
when the owners are indebted to the corporation. 
The capital stock of a company is the sum of all the 
shares issued, at their par value. 

Preferred Stock. The preferred stock of a cor- 
poration is given to secure some obligation of the 
company and upon it dividends are declared in prefer- 
ence to the common stock. 

Limited. When the word limited is affixed to a 
stock company's name, it signifies that each share- 
holder is individually liable to the creditors of the 
company for only the amount representing the value 
of shares held by each. When the word limited is not 
attached, it is understood that it is -Si full liabiliry com- 
pany in which each shareholder is individually liable to 
the creditors of the company. 

Taxes. When the stock of a company is taxed, 
the company is exempt from taxation on its real and 
personal property, because the shares represent the 
company's assets and the State cannot collect twice on 
the same property. 

Reports. Officers of stock companies are required 
to file with the Secretary of State reports giving particu- 
lars as to paid-up capital, assets and liabilities, surplus 
and dividends. 

Laws Differ. Since the laws of the various States 
differ so widely from each other, persons intending to 
form a stock company, should first consult the statutes 
covering '"Corporations." 

io6 








STANDARD ENGLISH AUTHORS. 

Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400). Called "the father of Eng- 
lish poetry." His greatest work is the Canterbury Tales. The 
Anglo-Saxon of his poems is almost unintelligible to modern 
readers. Dryden calls him " a perpetual fountain of good sense." 

Edmund Spenser (1552-1599). A great poet of the sixteenth 
century. His greatest work is The Faerie Quee7ie — an allegory 
like the " Pilgrim's Progress." He was the oracle of the great 
poets of the following century. 

William Shakespeare (1564-1616). The greatest poet who 
ever lived. Very little is known of his life. Has written thirty- 
seven plays and many short poems. The greatest of his tragedies 
are probably Hamlet and King Lear ; the best of his historical 
plays, Richard III 2Lr\d Julius Ccesar ; and the finest comedies, 
Midsummer Nights Dream and As You Like It. He was a mas- 
ter of all human experience, knew the human heart in all its 
phases, was acquainted with all sorts and conditions of men, famil- 
iar with history of all time, and had a greater mastery of language 
than any other writer who ever lived. 

Francis Bacon (1561-1626). A great thinker and prose 
writer. Called "the wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind." 
His Essays shouM find a place in every library. No man could 
say wdser things in pithier words. 

John Milton (160S-1674). The greatest epic poet of English 
literature. Had a government position under Cromwell. His 
great poems are Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained. They 
are much better poetry than theology. For many years Milton 
was stone blind. 

John Dryden (1631-1700). A great poet. For many years 
he was poet-laureate of England. Many of his most pithy lines 
are often c[ucted, such as *' Men are but children of a larger 
growth." 

John Bunyan (162S-16S8). A famous Baptist preacher, best 
known as author of the Pilgrim's Progress, written while he was 
serving a term in jail for preaching. 

Daniel Defoe (1661-1731). A prose writer whose books have 
been the delight of many generations. Best known as the author 
of Robinson Crusoe. Said to have written 250 books. 
107 



LITERATURE, AUTHORS AND BOOKS. 

Jonathan Swift (1667-1745). A famous prose writer. Best 
known as the author of that famous satire on humanity known as 
Gulliver^ s Travels. As he said he. would, he died *' first at the 
top." 

Joseph Addison (1672-1719). The most elegant prose writer 
of the eighteenth century. Famous for his style. His creation of 
the character of Sir Roger de Coverley will live forever. 

Alexander Pope (1688-1744). The greatest poet of the eigh- 
teenth century. His Essay on Man is perhaps his most famous 
poem. 

Thomas Gray (1716-1771). Famous as the author of the beau- 
tiful short poem, the Elegy Written in a Coujitry Churchyard. 
Contains 32 stanzas. Took him seven years to write them. 

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784). A great essayist and the first 
lexicographer. One of the most interesting characters in English 
literature. His memory keeps his works alive, not his works his 
memory. To say that a style \^ Johnsonian is to intimate that it is 
loaded down with big words. 

Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774). Poet, essayist, and dramatist. 
A great man without a rudder. Best poems, The Deserted Vil- 
lage, and The Traveller. His best play is She Stoops to Con- 
quer. A friend of Johnson's. 

William Cowper (1731-1800). One of the truest, purest, and 
sweetest of English poets. Readers are most familiar with The 
Task. *' God made the country, man made the town," is one of 
his famous lines. 

Robert Burns (1759-1796). Great poet of Scotland. Son of 
poor parents. Early opportunities limited. Many of his songs 
are famous. One of his finest poems is The Cotter''s Saturday 
Night, 

"William Wordsworth (1770-1850). Poet-laureate after 
Southey. Famous as a poet of Nature. Among his shorter 
poems are some of the most beautiful in the language. 

Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832). Famous Scotch poet, and rank- 
ing with Dickens as one of England's greatest novelists. His 
poems, Marjnion and the Lady of the Lake, and his novels Old 
Mortality, Kenilworth and Ivanhoe take first rank. His first 
novel, IVaverley, gives the name to the whole series. Scott was 
lame from youth. 

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834). A true poet and a 
writer of noble prose. His Rime of the A ncient Mariner and 
Christabel are his best known poems. 

Robert Southey (i 774-1843). Poet, reviewer, historian. 
Friend of Coleridge and Wordsworth. Wrote more than 100 vol- 
umes. Best known poem, yf7<3;« <7/"/^r^. 
108 



LITERATURE, AUTHORS AND BOOKS. 

Thomas Moore (1779-1852). A famous Irish poet. It is as a 
writer of songs that he will live in literature. His best known 
poem is Lalla Rookh. 

George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824). A great poet. The 
only child of an unprincipled father and a passionate mother. He 
"woke one morning, " he said, " and found himself famous," as 
the author of Childe HarolcTs Pilgrimage. His style is remark- 
able for its elasticity, tireless energy, and brilliant illustrations. 
Byron had a club-foot. 

Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822). A great lyric poet. His 
thoughts, his words, and his deeds all sang together. He was 
drowned in the Mediterranean Sea. 

John Keats (1795-1821). A great poet. He has given us lines 
which will always live, such as " A thing of beauty is a joy for- 
ever." Died of consumption when only twenty-five. 

Thomas De Quincey (1785-1859). A brilliant essayist. His 
style is specially stimulating and helpful to young literary students. 

Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881). A great thinker, essayist, and 
historian. His most remarkab'e book is The French Revolidiofi. 
Many amusing stories are told of his dogged disposition. 

Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800-1859), England's 
greatest historian. Had a wonderful memory. His history is as 
fascinating as a novel. 

Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1809-1861). A famous poet. 
Wife of Robert Browning. Aurora LeigJi is considered her best 
poem. Her sonnets and lyrics are full of pathos and passion. 

Robert Browning (1812-1888). The most original poet of the 
century. His language is always very hard to understand. For 
fullness of thought and experience his poems rank next to those of 
Shakespeare. 

"William Makepeace Thackeray (xSii-1863). A great Eng- 
lish novelist. His novel, Vanity Fair, takes rank with the great- 
est novels in the language. 

Charles Dickens (1812-1S70). A great English novelist. His 
characters in Pickwick, Nicholas Nicklehy, Oliver Twist, and 
David Copperfield will live as long as the language lasts. No 
author comes so close to the great heart of humanity. The spirit 
of all his work is the spirit of love — the hatred of evil and the love 
of good. 

John Ruskin (1819- ). A great essayist, art-critic and 

thinker. His writings are full of the wisest sayings put into the 
most musical and beautiful language. 

George Eliot (1819-1881). A great novelist. Her real name 
was Marian Evans. Her most popular novels are Adam Bede^ 
Romola and Middlet7tarch. 



LITERATURE, AUTHORS AND BOOKS. 

John Tyndall (1820 ). A great English scientist, and a 

vigorous and fascinating writer. Best known as an explorer in 
experimental physics. 

Thomas Henry Huxley (1825- ). A great English scien- 
tist. An important contributor to the recent discussion of the 
origin of man. An able supporter of Darwin's evolutionary doc- 
trines. 

Alfred Tennyson (1810- ). The first of living poets. Suc- 
ceeded WordsworJi as poet-laureate. The charm of his poetry lies 
mainly in his felicity of diction, and in his choice and arrangement 
of words. 

Other Famous English Authors — Jane Austen, Jane Por- 
ter, Taomas Campbell, Leigh Hunt, Michael Faraday, Frederick 
Marryatt, Felicia Hemens, Samuel Lover, Hugh Miller, Ben- 
jamin Disraeli, John Stuart Mill, Charles Darwin, Charles 
Mackay, Charles Reade, Anthony Trollope, Charles Kingsley, 
Herbert Spencer, Matthew Arnold, Thomas Hughes, Max Mul- 
ler, Charlotte ]\L Yonge, Charlotte Bronte, Wilkie Collins, George 
MacDonald, Dinah Maria Craik, George Meredith, Sir Edwin 
Arnold, Mary E. Braddon, Algernon Swinburne, William Black, 
Robert Louis Stevenson, Rider Haggard. 

STANDARD AMERICAN AUTHORS. 

Benjamin Franklin (1705-1790), A characteristic figure of his 
time. A man of wonderful resources. In his inventiveness, 
thrift, common-sense and practicality he started out as the primal 
Yankee. 

"Washington Irving (1783-1^59). A great essayist and novel- 
ist. His Sketch Book contains ihe celebrated story of *' Rip Van 
Winkle." Buried at Sleepy Hollow near Tarry town on the 
Hudson. 

James Fennimore Cooper (i 789-1851). Popular novelist. 
Some of his best known stories are The Spy, The Last of the 
Mohicans^ and The Pilot. 

Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849). A sad figure in American liter- 
ature. Most of his stories have weird, ghostly, unnatural plots. 
The Raven is his most famous poem. 

George Bancroft (1800-1891). America's greatest historian. 

Harriet Beecher Stowe '^1812 ). Famous as the author 

of Uncle Tom s Cabin. Sister of Henry Ward Beecher. Wrote 
several popular novels describing New England life and character. 

William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878). Famous poet. His best 
known poem is Thanatopsis^ written when he was only eighteen 
years of age. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882). The most 
famous figure in American literature, and one of the most popu- 
lar poets of all time. His best known poems are Evangeline and 
Hiawatha. Longfellow is buried at Mt. Auburn near Boston. 



LITERATURE, AUTHORS AND BOOKS. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882). Famous author and 
philosopher. Imparted extraordinary stimulus to pure living and 
high-thinking. He was a rare type of innocence. He stands as 
one of the few great original forces in literature. 

Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862). Wrote poems and 
essays. Lived for some time in a hut on Lake Walden near Con- 
cord, Mass. 

Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864). One of America's best 
known writers. His novels, "The Scarlet Letter," ''Twice- 
Told Tales," "The House of the Seven Gables," and "The 
Marble Faun," are familiar to all students of literature. 

Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809- ). Began active life as 

a, physician. Called "The Autocrat," from the use of this title 
to liis department in the Atlantic Monthly. His novels, "Elsie 
Venner " and "The Guardian Angel," are delightful reading. 

James Russell Lowell (1819-1891). Poet and prose writer. 
In later years, a famous essayist. Made famous by the Bigloiv 
Papers. 

John Greenleaf Whittier (1807-1892). The Quaker poet. 
Abolitionist. Snow-Botmd is one of his most beautiful poems. 
Whittier never married. 

Other Famous American Authors. 

Louisa M. Alcott, T. B. Aldrich, W. H. Bishop, H. H. 
Boyesen, H. C. Bunner, " Bob Burdette," John Burroughs, 
George W. Cable, Alice and Phoebe Cary, Samuel L. Clemens 
(Mark Twain), Rose Terry Cooke, George William Curtis, Ed- 
ward Eggleston, Augusta J. Evans, Edgar Fawcett, Eugene 
Field, John Fiske, William Hamilton Gibson, Richard W, 
Gilder, J. R. Gilmore, John Habberton, Edward Everett Hale, 
Joel Chandler Harris, Francis Bret Harte, Julian Hawthorne, 
Paul Hayne, Thos. Wentworth Higginson, J. G. Holland, F. 
Hopkinson Smith, E. W. Howe, W. D. Howells, Mrs. H. H. 
Jackson, Henry James, Sarah Orne Jewett, Richard Malcolm 
Johnston, George Parsons Lathrop, Brander Matthews, Joaquin 
Miller, Donald G. Mitchell, J. L. Motley, E. W. (Bill) Nye, 
Thos. Nelson Page, Francis Parkman, James Parton, J. H. 
Payne, Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward, Wendell Phillips, James 
Whitcomb Riley, Amelia Rives, E. P. Roe, Edgar Saltus, Jno. 
G. Saxe, Mrs. E. D. E. N. Southworth, Harriet Prescott Spof- 
ford, Edmund Clarence Stedman, Frank R. Stockton, R. H. 
Stoddard, Bayard Taylor, Celia Thaxter, Lew Wallace, Charles 
Dudley Warner, E. P. Whipple, Richard Grant White, Constance 
Fennimore Woolson, John Boyle O'Reilly. 

Note. — Group No. 2 includes the following authors : Emerson, 

Dickens, Ruskin Whittier, Lowell, Longfellow Huxley, 

Agassiz, Tyndal Hawthorne, Tennyson, Thackeray. 











HELPFUL HINTS. 

Be good for something. No use applying for a 
situation if you cannot do anything. Encourage and 
develop some one talent for the use of which the 
world offers a money value. The man who can do 
almost anything fairly well isn't drawing half the sal- 
ary of the man who can do one thing better than other 
people. 

Never be idle. If you are out of work and can't 
find any, go and help some poor fellow who has more 
than he can carry. Don't consider that you are doing 
him a great favor, either. He is really doing you the 
favor. For every one man who can't find work, there 
are five who have more than they can do. If you 
read your Bible you will find that the men whom God 
put to work were not standing around with their hands 
in their pockets waiting for a job. 

Never despair. You can do almost anything you 
make up your mind to do, and resolve upon doing, 
willingly and earnestly. Do not be afraid of pounding 
persistently at one thing, even if people do call you a 
crank. 

Get at something. If nothing turns up, turn 
something up. The man who is at work has ten 
chances to get a better place, for one chance the man 
who is out of work has to get anything to do. If the 
place isn't good enough or the pay not big enough, fill 
the place chuck full, so that you bulge over a little 
where people can see you, and earn every cent of the 
pay. The people who are most tired in this world are 
working for themselves. It may rest you to help 
another fellow. 

Don't quit a good position until you are sure of a 
better one. Remember that the very best positions 
are secured through promotions and not by answering 
advertisements. The boys who are always looking for 
nice, easy positions at fat salaries, never get them. 

Don't try everything. The applicant who 
answers all advertisements and claims ability to fill 
each position, will stand a poor chance to get an ap- 
pointment. If you are satisfied that you can fill the 
requirements, put forth your best facts to prove it. 

"5 



HOW TO APPLY FOR A SITUATION. 

Don't tell your history. It will not be neces- 
sary to say how well bred or how well educated you 
are. Show this by the moderation of your statements, 
the conciseness of your facts, by correct spelling and 
good grammar, by a neat and respectable letter. 
Write such a letter as will obtain for you an inter- 
view, and your manners can then be made manifest. 

Use good stationery — not that of your present 
employer. The longer you have been with one house 
the more valuable vou will appear to a new one. 
Don't enclose postage stamps for reply. It is a use- 
less expense. If your letter is the one chosen, the 
advertiser will spend two cents to see you. Use the 
ordinary-shaped business envelope. All fancy sta- 
tionery goes into the waste-basket without being 
opened. 

Be frank and sincere. Don't waste your time 
and the advertiser's by applying for a position which 
you are unable to fill. An office-boy cannot expect to 
get a job as business manager of a large corporation, 
and a young man of twenty-five, no matter how smart 
he may be, will not be chosen as a bank president. 

SAMPLE APPLICATION. 



22^ Main St. 
Boston^ Aug, 77, i8g2. 

Messrs. A. R, Stone &" Co.^ 
Salem, Mass, 

Ge7itleme7t : — In reply to your advertisement in 
today'' s '"'' Herald'''' for a salesman and office assist- 
ant, I beg to offier my services. I was i7t the employ 
of the well-known firm of R. M. Hamilton ^ Co, 
of this city, for five years, ending fune last, when 
they sold out. I had the third position in their 
counting-room, where I had considerable experience 
in bookkeeping and correspondence. I have not had 
any experience as salesman, but if my application 
proves successful, 1 shall try to give satisfaction. I 
enclose such testimonials as I have convenient, and 
shall await, with some i?tterest, your reply. 

Yours very respectfully, 

MAXWELL EATON. 




7« /. : .... / 



There are a great many methods of secret writing. Most 
governments have a private cipher for telegraphic messages to 
their foreign representatives. This is a very necessary provision ia 
times of political disturbance. Here is a cipher alphabet which 
may be found interesting : 



A B C D E FCM|^ 






IV X Y 2 n;^ ^?^ 



By a little study one can very easily commit this alphabet to 
memor3\ Try the following exercises : 







"MAYFLOWER? 

Passenger LKh •— 

HEAD5 of FAMILIES. 

iJbiilJljuoLAAA. Sbjwud^iiM^ 








-/^ 




(BujlU^ 



ZdM^JuiAAjdi J^OA,CjXMsyx<^ 

(P/d^ ^AoxXru — 
(RlduvudL (R)AittiAA.cLc^ 

{RjLcJkoJuL QJlaJ^L^ 





DW TO WRITE 




sttlecuon. We analysl 
ihouglii and to appra* 
do more thai] 






- — igram sysl- „. - . . 

uk iTiflnri^rbiiaiU^i'lniiijiiarlnn ini^^iliin 



OPINIONS OF SUCCESSFUL AUTHORS. 
Mrs. Craik. I believe composition is a gift, not 
an art, — impossible to teach, though it may be im- 
proved by study. Say what you have to say as briefly 
and simply as you can. Be your own natural self. 

Jean IngeloTAr. Cultivate your mind and let your 
style alone. Study our best writers — what they said 
and how they said it. 

Louise Chandler Moulton. I think one cannot 
acquire a good style unless one has the natural gift, as 
one must have an ear for music. Then this gift must 
be cultivated by the careful and constant reading of 
the best masters. Any one can use words correctly^ but 
to use them forcibly, picturesquely, is another thing. 

James Russell Lowell. I am inclined to think 
that a man's style is born with him, and that a style 
modelled upon another's is apt to be none or worse. 
Of course I mean consciously modelled, for frequent 
commerce with the best writers is essential. 

Julian Hawthorne. Literary style is largely a 
matter of innate aptitude, and is fostered as much by 
the study of good authors as by personal efforts. 
Neither cause will produce a good style without the 
other. The best writing is always the most spontane- 
ous and easy. 

George Macdonald. I would say to any one 

whose heart burned within him, write freely what you 
feel, and then correct rigorously. The truth must give 
you your material and utterance. 

Amelia E. Barr. I put myself, my experiences, 
my observations, my heart and soul into my work. I 
live as close as I can to God and as far away from the 
world as possible. 

Le^w Wallace. If there is excellence in my com- 
position, set it down, first of all things and last, to the 
fact that I have no method. Modes of expression in 
writing, like modes of expression in speech, are refer- 
able to feeling. 

Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward. So far as the 
formation of mv own style goes, it is the result of 
downright hard work. This and the experience of life, 
have been my chief teachers. 



HOW TO WRITE FOR THE PRESS. 



Bret Harte. I formed my style in a printing- 
office in a country where people live by observation 
rather than tradition, and the routine vi^as not without 
a certain chastening effect on both writer and reader. 

Mark Twain. I am not sure that I have methods 
in composition. If I have, they begot themselves, in 
which case I am only their proprietor, not their father, 

Celia Thaxter. One or two rules I laid down : 
never to use more words than I could help to give my 
full meaning ; never to speak a sentence that was not 
as crystal clear as I could make it. 

Ernest Renan. To write well is to think well; 
there is no art of style distinct from the culture of the 
mind. The good writer is a complete mine, gifted 
with judgment, passion, imagination, and at the same 
time, well trained. Instruction, wealth of information, 
fulness of knowledge, are acquired. Thus good train- 
ing of the mind is the only school of good style. 

George Meredith. Writing is an art as painting 
is, and in both we must begin by reverent study of the 
masters. 

George William Curtis. Every young writer 
should remember that bigness is not greatness, nor 
fury, force. 

Phillips Brooks. My only training in composi- 
tion has been the constant effort for many years to say 
as clearly and forcibly as I could what was in my 
mind. 

Oliver "Wendell Holmes. You will find it a 
safe rule, never to write except when you have some- 
thing worth saying, and then to say it simply. 

Thomas Hughes. Any style is good if you have 
something you have a call to say, and men ought to 
hear ; and no style is good if you haven't. 

John Burroughs. Earnestness is the great secret 
of forcible composition. Unless the idea is plain and 
palpable, as real in the print, as are the trees in the 
field or the men in the street, the work is faulty. 

W. Clark Russell. My advice to a young be- 
ginner would be, first take the trouble to thoroughly 
understand what you propose to convey and the words 
will follow. I sometimes wish, indeed, that there was 
less style and more understanding. 

Brander Matthews. To a beginner, the advice 
I would give would be to think straight and write 
simply. To be clear is the first duty of a writer ; to 
charm and to please are graces to be acquired later. 




How To BUY AND SELL 



STOCK)^ 




INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 

New York has no more entertaining public exhibi- 
tion than its Stock Exchange. It is one of the show- 
places of the city. The visitor who, for the first 
time, looks down from a gallery upon its members in 
the act of transacting business, is astonished at the 
apparent confusion he witnesses. There is no reason 
why bonds and shares should not be publicly dealt in, 
and in large quantities, as well as dry-goods, corn, or 
cotton. But, unfortunately, few stock exchanges con- 
fine their transactions to ordinary legitimate business. 
The members are divided into two classes — those who 
execute commissions for others, and those who deal on 
their own account. Among the latter are the boldest 
and sharpest speculators of the day. The exchange 
does not put on its list all prominent stocks and bonds 
of acknowledged value, im-partially selected, and solely 
because of their merits. You will look in vain for the 
stock of dozens of corporations whose securities are 
among the choicest investments. The reason is very 
evident. The largest profits (to the speculator) are 
most often made out of the most abominable rubbish. 
It is upon fluctuations that stock speculation fattens. 
Quick changes bring quick profits. Wall street does 
not produce a dollar. It creates nothing. It draws its 
sustenance entirely from outsiders. The fact that, by 
putting up one thousand dollars in cash, you can buy 
twenty thousand dollars in stocks, and take a profit on 
the larger amount, is to many an irresistible temptation. 
To those who are anxious to try " stocks, " we say go 
carefully. Better to earn money than to make it. 

HINTS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

Stock Certificate. A stock certificate is a writ- 
ten or a printed instrument of a stock company or cor- 
poration, signed by the officers of the company, certi- 
fying that the holder of the certificates is the owner of 
a certain number of shares of its capital stock. 

Preferred Stock. The preferred stock is given 
to secure some obligation of the company and upon it 
dividends are declared in preference to the common 
stock. 

Watered Stock is issued to stockholders in addi- 
tion to what they own, and for which no extra pay- 



HOW TO BUY AND SELL STOCKS. 



ment is required. When the charter of a corporation 
or the general law governing corporations, forbids 
them to declare dividends in excess of a certain /^r 
cent, or when the stock-holders wish to keep the public 
in ignorance of their prosperity, watered stock is 
issued and dividends are declared on the inflated basis. 
Thus, if a company can pay i6 per cent, but is com- 
pelled by law to pay only 8 per cent, its board of man- 
agers may water the stock giving to each stockholder 
one additional share for every share he now has ; i6% 
on $ioo will be only 8% on ^200, and the requirements 
of the law are satisfied. 

Dividends. The dividends are the quarterly, half- 
yearly, or annual profits which are divided among the 
shareholders. 

Bucket Shop. An establishment conducted nomi- 
nally for the transaction of a stock-exchange business, 
but really for the registration of bets or wagers, usually 
for small amounts, on the rise or fall of the prices of 
stocks, grain, etc., there being no transfer or delivery 
of the commodities nommally dealt in. Puts and 
calls and bucket shop operations are usually classed 
as gambling transactions. 

Margins. The speculator usually trades on margins ; 
that is, if he has $500 to invest he buys $5000 
worth of stock, his $500 being ten per cent of the 
total amount. He expects to sell again before the 
remaining $4500 falls due. If he goes to a reputable 
broker to buy or sell on a margin, he will be informed 
that his ten per cent must be kept good. That is, if 
the stock declines while being carried by the broker, 
more deposit is necessary. 

Bulls and Bears. The term bull is applied to 
those who are purchasers of stock for long account, 
with the purpose of advancing prices as the tendency 
of a bull is to elevate everything within its reach. 
The term bear is applied to those who sell stock short, 
with the purpose of depreciating values. The bear 
operates for a decline in prices. 

HOW TO TRADE. 

Select an honest broker. The man who buys 
and sells stocks with profits must base this buying and 
selling on exact calculations. Every known fact must 
come into consideration. The speculator who trusts 
to chance cannot expect to be successful. Facts are 
easily obtained by the intelligent reader and observer. 
Common-sense, logic, quickness, courage, knowledge, 
and capital are the essentials. Through a broker, you 
can buy and sell all the leading stocks dealt in at the 
great commercial centres. 

123 




UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

1492. The West Indies were discovered by Colum- 
bus. 
1497. North America was discovered by the Cabots. 

1 513. Florida was discovered by Ponce de Leon. 
The Pacific Ocean was discovered by Balboa. 
1 52 1. Mexico was conquered by Cortez. 
1534. The St. Lawrence River was discovered by 
Cartier. 

1541. The Mississippi was discovered by De Soto. 
1562. The Huguenots began a colony in Carolina. 

1565. St. Augustine was settled by the Spaniards. 

1579. Drake sailed to the Pacific and made a landing ia 
California. 

1584. The coast of North Carolina was explored by 
Raleigh's expedition and., next year, a second expedi- 
tion, followed by a third, two years, later, made unsuc- 
cessful attempts to establish a colony. 

1606. The English king, James I., divided his do- 
mains in America in two parts, giving one to 
the London Company and the other to the 
Plymouth Company. 

1607. Jamestown, Va., was settled by the London 
Company. 

1609. The Hudson River was discovered by Henry 

Hudson. 
1614. New York was settled by the Dutch. 

1619. Negro slavery was introduced into Virginia. 

1620. The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. 
1622. The first Indian massacre in Virginia occurred. 

1623. New Hampshire was. settled. 

The Dutch began to colonize New York. 

1633. The first colony of Connecticut was planted at 

Windsor. 

1634. . Maryland was settled at St. Mary's. 

126 



HISTORY — LEADING FACTS. 



1636. Roger Williams began the settlement of 
Rhode Island. 

1638. Delaware was settled by the Swedes. 

1656. The "Quaker Persecution" in Massachusetts 
occurred. 




1670. South Carolina was settled on the Ashley 
River. 

1673. Marquette descended the Mississippi. 
1675. King Philip's War occurred in New England. 
127 



HISTORY — LEADING FACTS. 



1682. Pennsylvania was settled by the English. 
Delaware was granted to William Penn. 
La Salle descended the Mississippi. 

1689. King William's War began in America. 

1690. Port Royal, Nova Scotia, was captured by the 

English. 
1692. Plymouth was united with Massachusetts and the 

Salem Witchcraft delusion prevailed. 
1697. The treaty of Ryswick ended King William's War. 

1702. Queen Anne's War began in America. 

1710. Port Royal, N.S., was captured by the English. 
1 7 13. The treaty of Utrecht ended Queen Anne's War. 

1732. Washington was born in Virginia, February 22. 

1733. Georgia was settled at Savannah. 

1754. The French and Indian War began. 

Washington defeated the French at the Great Meadows 
but capitulated to them at Fort Necessity. 

1755. The French were expelled from Nova Scotia and 
Braddock was defeated at the Monongahela. 

1756. Oswego was captured by the French. 

1757. Fort William Henry was surrendered to the 
French. 

1758. Abercromby was defeated at Ticonderoga. Louis- 
burg and Fort Frontenac (Kingston) were taken by the 
English. 

1759. Fort Niagara was taken by the English; Wolfe 
was defeated at the battle of the Montmorenci, but he 
defeating Montcalm before Quebec, the city surrendered 
to the English. 

1760. Though the English were defeated in a battle near 
Quebec, Montreal and the rest of Canada were surren- 
dered to them. 

1763. The treaty of Paris ending the French and 
Indian War, left England in possession of 
the region north and south of the St. Law- 
rence and east of the Mississippi. 

1765. Parliament passed the Stamp Act. 

1767. Parliament passed bill taxing tea, glass, etc. 
1768. British troops arrived in Boston. 
1770. The Boston massacre occurred. 
1770. Parliament abolished all taxes except tea tax. 

1773. The tea for Boston thrown into the harbor. 

1774. Parliament passed the Boston Port Bill. 

128 



HISTORY — LEADING FACTS. 

1774. The first Continental Congress met in Phila. 

1775. The War began with the Battle of Lexington. 

Washington was elected to command the armies. 
The Battle of Bunker Hill was fought June 17. 
Montr3al surrendered to Montgomery. 




Montgomery was defeated and slain at Quebec. 
1776. Boston was evacuated by the British. 

1776. The British were defeated at Fort Moultrie. 
The Declaration of Independence was adopted. 
Battle of Trenton — British were defeated. 



HISTORY — LEADING FACTS. 



1777. Battle of Princeton — British were defeated. 
Ticonderoga was taken by Burgoyne. 

Battle of Bennington — British were defeated. 

Battle of Brandywine — Americans were defeated. 

Battle of Bemis Heights — first of Stillwater. 

Battle of Germantown — Americans were defeated. 

Battle of Saratoga or second of Stillwater. 

Surrender of Burgoyne. 

Washington's army went into quarters at Valley Forge. 

1778. France acknowledges Independence of the U.S.. 
The British army evacuated Philadelphia. 

Battle of Monmouth — British retreated. 
The Massacre at Wyoming, in Pennsylvania. 
The Massacre at Cherry Valley, in New York. 
Savannah was captured by the British. 

1779. The British were driven from the Northwest. 
Battle of Stony Point — British were defeated. 

1780. Charleston was surrendered to the British. 
Battle of King's Mountain — British were defeated. 

1781. Battle of Cowpens — British were defeated. 
Articles of Confederation were ratified by the States. 
Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 

1783. Definitive Treaty of Peace was signed at Paris^ 
1787. Constitution of U.S. adopted by Convention. 
1789. Eleven States having adopted the Constitution^ 
Congress decided that it should go inta 
effect on the 4th of March, 1789. 
1789. Washington was inaugurated President. 
1793. Whitney invented the Cotton-gin. 
1795- J^-y's Treaty with Great Britain was ratified. 
1797. John Adams was inaugurated President. 
1798. Alien and Sedition Laws were enacted. 

1799. Washington died at Mount Vernon. 

1800. First Meeting of Congress in Washington. 

1801. Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated President. 
1803. The Louisiana Territory was purchased of 

France. 
1804. The duel between Hamilton and Burr. 
1807. Frigate Leopard attacked Frigate Chesapeake. 

Fulton's steamboat Clermont ascended the Hudson. 
1809. James Madison was inaugurated President. 
18 1 1 . Battle of Tippecanoe — Indians defeated. 



HISTORY — LEADING FACTS. 




i8i2. War was declared against Great Britain. 
Hull surrendered Detroit to the British. 
Americans were defeated at Queenstown. 

1813. British were repulsed at Sackett's Harbor. 

1813. Battle of Lake Erie — British defeated. 

1814. Battle of Chippewa — British defeated. 
1814. Battle of Lundy Lane — British defeated. 

1814. British burn public buildings in Washington. 
Battle of Lake Champlain — British defeated. 

131 



HISTORY — LEADING FACTS. 



Battle of Fort McHenry — Biitish defeated. 
Treaty of Peace was signed at Ghent. 

i8i 5. Battle of New Orleans — British defeated. 

1817. James Monroe was inaugurated President. 

1819. A treaty for the purchase of Florida was made. 

1820. The Missouri Compromise was passed. 

1825. John Quincy Adams was inaugurated Presi- 
dent. 
1826. First railroad built in the United States. 

1829. Andrew Jackson was inaugurated President. 

1830. Debate in Congress between Webster and Hayne. 
1835, Texas declared her independence. 

1837. Martin Van Buren was inaugurated President. 

1841. Wm. Henry Harrison inaugurated President. 
The death of Harrison occurred April 4. 
John Tyler was inaugurated President. 

1844. is^ Telegraph in practical use in the U. S. 

1845. James K. Polk was inaugurated President, 

March 4. 

1846. Mexicans attacked American dragoons. 

1846. Congress declared " War existed by Act of 

Mexico." 
Oregon Boundary Treaty made with Great Britain. 

1847. Battle of Buena Vista — Mexicans defeated. 
1847. Vera Cruz captured by General Scott. 
1847. Battle of Cerro Gordo — Mexicans defeated. 

1847. Ci^y ^^ Mexico surrendered to Gen. Scott. 

1848. The discovery of gold in California. 

Treaty with Mexico, peace and territory gained. 

1849. Zachary Taylor was inaugurated President. 
1850. The death of President Taylor occurred. 

1850. Millard Fillmore was inaugurated President. 

1853. Franklin Pierce was inaugurated President. 

1854. Congress passed the Kansas and Nebraska Bill. 

1857. James Buchanan was inaugurated President. 

The Dred Scott decision was made known. 
1859. John Brown made a raid into Virginia. 
i860. South Carolina passed a Secession Ordinance. 



HISTORY — LEADING FACTS. 



1861. Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Arkan- 

sas, Tennessee and North Carolina passed 

Secession Ordinances. 
Kansas was admitted into the Union. 
Confederate States adopted a Constitution. 
Jefferson Davis inaugurated President of Confederacy. 
Abraham Lincoln inaugurated President of U.S. 
Lincohi proclaimed a blockade of Southern ports. 
Battle of Bull Run, Va. — the North defeated. 

1862. Fight between the Virginia and the Monitor. 
Battle of Shiloh, Tenn. — the South defeated. 

New Orleans was captured by a Union Fleet. 
Harper's Ferry, Va , captured — the North defeated. 
Battle of Antietam, Md., — the South defeated. 
Battle of Fredericksburg, Va. , — the North defeated. 

1863. Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. 
Battle of Chancellorsville, Va., — the North defeated. 
Battle of Gettysburg — the South defeated, July 3. 
Vicksburg, Miss., surrendered — the South defeated. 
Battle of Chickamauga, Tenn. — the North defeated. 
Battle of Chattanooga, Tenn. — the South defeated. 

1864. General Grant was made Lieutenant-General. 
Battle of the Wilderness — result not decisive. 

1864. The ICearsarge fought and sunk the Alabama. 
Atlanta, Ga., captured — the South defeated. 
Savannah captured — the South defeated. 

1865. Columbia, S. C, surrendered — the South de- 

feated. 

Petersburg and Richmond surrendered to Union troops. 
Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court-House. 
Pre'^ident Lincoln was assassinated, April 14. 
Andrew Johnson was inaugurated President. 

1867. Alaska was bought of Russia. 

1868. House of Rep. impeached President Johnson. 
Johnson, after trial, was not found guilty. 

1869. Ulysses S. Grant -was inaugurated President. 
187 1. The Washington Treaty (Alabama Claims) 

made. 
Fire in Chicago destroys 18,000 houses, Oct. 8, 9, 10. 

1876. Centennial Exhibition held in Philadelphia. 

1877. Rutherford B. Hayes inaugurated President. 

1881. James A. Garfield was inaugurated President. 
President Garfield was assassinated, July 2. 
Chester A. Arthur was inaugurated President. 

1885. Grover Cleveland was inaugurated President. 
Death of General Grant. 

1889. Benjamin Harrison was inaugurated President. . 




'^^''' BODIES 




of OURS 



Our bodies are made up of distinct parts, each of 
which performs a definite work. The framework, 
which gives its general form to the body, is called the 
skeleton. The skeleton consists of about two hun- 
dred and eight bones, of which thirty are in the head, 
fifty-four in the trunk, and one hundred and twenty- 
four in the limbs. The muscles form the red flesh. 
They completely cover the bones. 

The respiratory apparatus is called the lungs which 
fill two-thirds of the ch3st. These lungs are double 
and of unequal size, the left one being the smaller. 
The lungs are enveloped by a serous membrane called 
the pleura (inflammation of which \% pleurisy ) Avhich 
separates them from each other and from the chest 
w^alls. In each lung the hundreds of little canals join 
to form a single tube called bronchus. The union of 
these two tubes forms the windpipe. The lungs are 
the locality in which a necessary exchange of gases 
takes place. The blood gives off carbonic acid gas 
and other impurities and this is given out by the lungs, 
while the blood needs oxygen which it secures from 
the pure air which w^e breathe in. 

The blood is a liquid somewhat heavier than water. 
It circulates at a great speed through the entire body. 
The fresh blood or that charged with oxygen is called 
arterial. It is scarlet in color. The blood which is 
on its way to become purified is a dark red color and 
is called venous. The arteries start from the heart; 
the veins run to the heart. The feeding of the tissues 
of the body is carried on chiefly by the fluid part of the 
blood. The blood itself is fed from the food taken 
into the stomach. This blood builds bone and brain, 
liver and lungs, marrow and muscle. It also collects 
the waste matters of the body and conveys them to the 
organs which cast them out. 

The heart is a hollow organ, situated between the 



THESE BODIES OF OURS. 



two luii^s. It is the pump which propels the blood to 
all parts of the body. It is conical in shape, its 
'pointed end hanging downwards, and it weighs about 
ten ounces. The heart is a muscular organ, and it is 
the property of a muscle to contract. When these 
muscles contract, they squeeze together the heart-walls 
and in this way force the blood on its way. The blood 
is prevented from flowing back over the same course 
by a system of valves. From th© right lower cavity of 
the heart the pulmonary artery goes out and sends 
branches to both lungs. At every beat, the heart 
moves about four ounces of blood. The heart of a 
full-grown man uses as much power in moving blood 
for twenty-four hoars as is necessary to lift one hun- 
dred and twenty tons one foot high. 

The blood which circulates in the stomach, intes- 
tines, and some other organs is collected by the portal 
vein and carried into the liver where a poisonous 
material which forms in the blood in other parts of the 
system is destroyed. The liver is the largest organ in 
the body. One part of its work is to secrete the bile, 
or gall, used in digestion. 

Most of the arteries lie deep in the flesh, butj at the 
wrist and temple, they are so near the surface that you 
can feel the pulse, or the motion of the blood, as it is 
sent forward by each beat of the heart. Usually, if 
the pulse is much faster or slower than the average 
rate, the person is sick. 

The principal, organs of digestion are the mouth, 
gullet, stomach, and intestines. Taken together this 
food canal is about thirty feet long. Here and there, 
beside it, are little fleshy bags called glands. These 
have the curious power of separating certain juices 
from the blood. These juices digest the food. A 
tongue much coated shows that the whole lining of 
this canal is out of order. The salivary glands of 
the mouth pour upon the food a juice called saliva 
which not only moistens the food, but transforms 
some of its starch into sugar. Washing down the 
food with " drink " will not take the place of slow eat- 
ing. The stomach is a strong muscular bag in the 
136 



THESE BODIES OF OURS. 



left side of the abdomen. Its inner lining has many 
glands which separate from the blood a juice, called 
gastric juice which digests the tissue-making foods. 
The bile and pancreatic juice digest the fats. If one 
must eat rapidly, as at a railroad station, the meal 
should be mainly of meat, as t.iat need not be mixed 
with the saliva for digestion. The heat of the stom- 
ach must be ioo° in order to digest the food properly, 
and anything, such as ice-water, which tends to lower 
the temperature, if taken too freely, is likely to be in- 
jurious. 

The process by which the waste products of the 
body are taken from the blood and cast out of the 
system is called excretion, which is carried on chiefly 
by the skin, the lungs, and the kidneys. The ski'n 
•chiefly excretes water in the form of sweat ; the lungs 
are mainly concerned with casting out carbonic acid 
and water; while the kidneys have for their chief func- 
tion the excretion of water and urea. These three 
working together prevent the machinery of the body 
from becoming clogged and choked with impurities. 

Muscular action, digestion, circulation, and all the 
work of the body is directed and controlled by the 
nervous system. The centre is the brain. The 
principal cord is the spinal cord which passes 
through the centre of what is commonly called the 
back-bone. From this cord, slender white threads 
extend to all parts of the body. The brain is pro- 
tected from injury by the strong bones of the skull. 

The five special senses are feeling, seeing, hear- 
ing, tasting, and smelling. The skin is the great organ 
of the sense of touch. Nerve-ends take up impres- 
sions of contact. The organ of sight is the eye. The 
white of the eye is a hard coat which protects the parts 
beneath. The colored circle — that which makes us 
call the eye brown, or blue — is the iris. It is like a 
circular curtain with a hole in the centre called the 
pupil. When the light is too bright, the pupil con- 
tracts; when too dim, it enlarges. The organ of hear- 
ing is the ear. The inner end of its canal is closed by 
a membrane. The auditory nerve proceeds from the 
base of the brain by bony passages to the internal ear. 
The sound wave causes the membrane of the tym- 
panum to vibrate. The tongue is the organ of taste. 

Our food is divided into three great classes — min- 
eral food for the bones, tissue-making food, and heat- 
making food. If a man weigh i6o pounds, about 140 
pounds of this weight is nothing but water — quite 
enough if rightly arranged to drown him. The bones 
need lime, the biain requires phosphorus, and the 
blood must have iron. 




CHINESE. 





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BENGALI. 

2fj^?5 SR i%^^ ^1 ^?Tl ^^ llft^ "Sff^ I 
BULGARIAN. 
SaI/IOTO EorZ T0AK03h BZBAIOKII CB-kTZ-TZ, l|J0TO 

AAAE GwiiA CBOEro €A""^P<5AMAro, 3a ^a he norwNE 

BCAKOM KOHTO rkpSBA BZ HEPO, 110 ^\ HMA JKMBOra 
ETHIOPIC. 

>kf|TO : TnooTI : }\Q.1>C : XT H.?i-fldi,C : 
A«iA9« : >kflYl : (DAR : T^hR : (DUH : aH s 
In™ : Tn^A-: HP?i9»*l : Pfs : ?i,JE^rh>A: 
KA : JEdVMl : AiJECDT : H A«^A9« :: 

PERSIAN. 






DANISH. 

2:^1 faa ^ar ©ub elffet ^erben, c<i r;an Ifjar gitoet 
fin S,c^rt ben eenbaarne, at \)\>^x ben, fom /roer jjaa i^am, 
iffe ffat fovtabe^, men ^at>c et etoicjt Sit>. 



HEBREW. 

FRENCH. 

Car Dieu a tellement alme Ic monde, qu'il a 
donne son Fils unique, afin que qaiconque croit 
en lui ne perisse point, mais qu'il ait la vie eternelle. 
GERMAN. 

2((fo t)<it ®ott bie SBelt gelicbet, bap cr feinen einge:: 
bornen (So{)u ^ah, auf bap 2C(le, bic an it)n Qlauben,- 
nicbt t)erlovcn ttjcrben, fonbern bag aT)i9c gebcn ^abcn, 

PORTUaUESE. 

Porque de tal maneira amou Deus ao mundo, 
que deu a seu Filho unigenito, para que todo aquelle 
que n'elle ere, nao pere9a, mas tenha a vida etema. 

RUSSIAN. 

Hoo lam* bo3.ik)5hjti Bori. Riip^, hto 014211^ Cbma 

cBoero e4HHopo4Haro, Aa5bi bcakIm, B^pyioiuiH bt* Hero, 

ae nomoi, ho mm^ii> }kq3hl B']5HByio. 

SANSKRIT. 
SWEDISH. 

X\) fa alffabe ®ub wcrlbena, att f)an utgaf jtn cnba 
©on, ^a bet att l)voax 06) en, fom tror pa i^onom, ffall 
icfe forgag, utan fa ewinnerligit lif^ 

SPANISH. 

Porque de tal manera amo Dios al mundo, , que 
ha dado a su Hijo Unigenito, para que todo aquel 
que en el cree, no se pierda, mas tenga vida etema. 







m 





•MOW-ToREAb- -=^ 

"CHARAC^g 

^ FROMCHINS-AND-NOiESi 




The Hair. People with hairy hands and bodies 
have a good deal of the animal in their make-up. 
Straight, lanky, black-haired individuals are melan- 
choly and depressing. Many of the most famous men 
of all time were smooth-faced. Hair which has a 
natural tendency to curl denotes an affectionate and 
merry disposition. Red-haired people are usually 
quick-tempered. Very fair-haired blondes are apt to 
be dreamy, listless, and imaginative. They are rest- 
less rather than energetic. Brown-haired people are 
nearly always of a more or less sentimental and roman- 
tic temperament, fond of travel, and liberal minded. 
When the hair is soft of texture you will find a gener- 
ous heart full of sympathy. 

The Eye-brows. Space between the eye-brows 
indicates an open, unsuspicious, frank nature. Gently 
curved eye-brows indicate artistic taste, and sentiment. 
The high-placed, curved eye-brow tells of indecision of 
character. Men of intellectual force frequently possess 
thick, bushy eve-brows. Such men are often irritable 
and untidy. Eye-brows lighter than the hair is a sign 
of weakness. Short eye-brows mean short temper. 

The Eyes. Light eyes denote cunning. Eyes in 
which the green tint is distinctly visible indicate talent. 
Gray eyes show poetic temperament, and quite often 
intellectual power. Most of the poets have had gray 
eyes. Brown eyes denote affection, and courage, and 
ability. They lack consistency in love affairs. If eyes 
are large, full, and rounded, they show timidity, and, 
perhaps, an unusual interest in the opposite sex. 

The Nose. The arched, beak-looking nose in 
large men indicates commanding power. The 
straight, drooping nose is melancholy. The turn-up 
indicates inquisitiveness. Such noses go ahead with 
their plans despite all interferences. The snub nose is 
coarse. The broad nose indicates brain power. The 
thin nose indicates weakness. 

The Mouth. With turned down corners it indi- 
cates sourness of disposition, while the turned up 
corners indicate merriment and light-heartedness. 
Thick lips indicate warmness of heart ; thin lips denote 
coldness and cruelty. A single, harsh line represents 
the mouth of the shrewd, severe, stingy man. The 

M5 



HOW TO READ CHARACTER. 



firm mouth, with the determined closing of the lips, 
shows that the person has a decided will and will stop 
or go forward at pleasure. Lips which fall away from 
the teeth indicate a want of self-control. The shape 
of the mouth may not be pretty but the words which 
come from it can always be pure, and cheerful, and 
good. 

The Chin. The chin is the rudder. Flat chins 
indicate coldness of temperament — egotism. A 
pointed chin denotes a selfish disposition- A rounded, 
protruding chin, tells of force and some materialism. 
The chin which falls back from the mouth to any great 
extent indicates an individual of weak character, who 
will need to be carried in a basket and fed with a 
spoon. A man with a double chin is jovial, fond of 
his meals — a sensualist. The larger the jaws the 
greater the animal instincts. A square chin with a 
dent underneath on the line of the bone, indicates deci- 
sion and obstinacy, with fondness and warmth of tem- 
perament. 

The Sars. Timid animals have long ears. The 
small ear is indicative of affection. Upright ears indi- 
cate courage and strength. Ears which stand out 
from the head in a wolfish kind of way, denote 
cruelty, and, when closely formed, avarice. When the 
ear is high above the eye it belongs to an individual 
who has a revengeful, quick temper. Ears well back, 
that is, with most of the head in front of them, denote 
a strong brain, while ears which leave much of the 
head back of them, denote an animal, narrow, selfish 
disposition. 

The Neck. Notice necks among birds and ani- 
mals. The silliness of the ostrich and the goose is 
proverbial. The bull, the buffalo, and the lion are 
short necked. Long necked people are timid and 
obedient. The manly and courageous, the firm, the 
obstinate, and the cruel are thick necked. 

The Forehead. The reading man whose mind is 
a storehouse of acquired knowledge, has a narrow, 
high forehead. He is well informed, but has gathered 
his information from reading rather than from 
observation. The low, wide forehead belongs to the 
imaginative, brilliant, naturally talented man. The 
wide, high forehead belongs to the genius who will 
sooner or later reach the top rung of the ladder. If 
the forehead be unwrinkled we may assume a want of 
sensitiveness and of imagination. There is very little 
sympathy in the unwrinkled brow. 

146 




Law. The laws enacted by the legislature are 
called statute lazv, while those principles and usages 
which rest for their authority upon their long- contin- 
ued acceptance and their adoption in judicial decisions,, 
are called common law. 

Contracts. An agreement, duly entered into, by 
competent parties, for a legally sufficient considera- 
tion, to do or not to do some specific thing, is a con- 
tract. It is not necessary that such agreement be in 
writing. If one party to a contract breaks it without 
the consent of the other, the other may enter suit for 
damages. 

False representation. To secure a mone}r 
through false representation is a serious offence. A 
mere statement of opinion, and generally of value, 
though false, is not considered fraud in law. The 
law considers the purchaser as capable of judging the 
value of an article as the seller. 

Drunkard. A contract made by a person so in- 
toxicated as not to know what he was about, is not 
binding upon him, unless he agreed to it after he 
became sober. It is binding, however, on the other 
party unless the intoxicated person retracts. 

Executor. The executor of an estate is the per- 
son appointed by a testator to execute his will or to 
see it carried into effect. If an executor or adminis- 
trator, in settling an estate, makes new contracts, or 
incurs new debts, he is personally responsible for 
them. 

Guardian. A guardian is a person who is legally 
appointed to have charge of the person or property of 
another, generally for minors. 

Minors. All persons under twenty-one years of 
age are minors. In Vermont, Maryland, Ohio, Illi- 
nois, and some other States, a girl is of age at eighteen^ 
As a general rule, a minor may avoid contracts made 
by him, except such contracts are made for the nec- 
essaries of life. 

Consideration. The consideration is the induce- 
ment offered by one party, by reason of which another 
party enters into an agreement. A simple promise^ 
made without consideration, is not sufficient to make a 
legally binding contract. 



LAW LESSONS FOR THE PEOPLE. 



Collections. A promise to pay part of a disputed 
claim is binding, even though there was in reality no 
original indebtedness. A payment of part of a claim 
is an acknowledgment of the whole claim. 

Trade. A man may contract not to carry on a cer- 
tain legitimate trade in a certain town for a definite 
number of years, but a contract never again to carry 
on such trade anywhere would not be binding. 

Agent. An agent is one who has legal authority 
to act in behalf of another. No one can lawfully act 
as another's agent without his consent. Authority to 
collect a debt is authority to take cash only ; authority 
to sell is not authority to give credit. A principal is 
liable for any fraud, deceit, negligence, or wilful mis- 
conduct of his agent, committed while acting fairly 
within the limits of his agency. 

Partnership. A partnership is the relation exist- 
ing between two or more persons who have joined 
together their money, goods, skill, and labor, or any or 
all of these, in some business, in which they divide the 
profits or share the losses. In general partnerships 
each partner is personally responsible for the entire 
debts of the partnership. A partnership may be 
created for any period of years or simply for a single 
transaction. No partner has a right, without the 
other's consent, to engage in any outside business 
which competes with, or is against, the interests of the 
partnership. In the management of a partnership 
affairs the partners have equal rights, even though 
their interests are unequal. A partner may take 
money or goods of the firm and charge them to his 
own account. Each partner has power to bind the 
firm in any purchase or contract within the limit of 
their business, without the consent or knowledge of 
the other partners. One partner cannot convey real 
estate without the consent of the other partners. The 
firm name must be signed to negotiable paper to 
render the firm liable. A partnership may be dis- 
solved at any time by the consent of all the partners. 
If good reason is shown and a mutual dissolution can- 
not be reached, a court of equity may dissolve the 
partnership by appointing a receiver to wind up the 
affairs. 

Sales. In a sale there must be a change of posses- 
sion, but actual delivery is not necessary to pass the 
title. To prevent sales whose object is to defraud 
creditors, if the seller still retains the article sold, a 
creditor can attach it as the property of the seller, 
unless the seller can show that the sale was genuine. 
Where the intention of the parties, either expressly 

148 



LAW LESSONS FOR THE PEOPLE. 



Stated, or clearly implied in the circumstances, is to fix 
some condition to the sale of goods, this condition 
must be satisfied before the absolute title will pass to 
the buyer. A sale is often made under an agreement 
that the title will not pass until the goods are paid for. 
This is commonly the case in buying on the instalment 
plan. 

Chattel Mortgage. A chattel mortgage is a sale 
of personal property as security for some debt or other 
obligation, the sale to be avoided by the repayment of 
the money, with interest, within a certain time. The 
mortgagor (or seller) usually retains the property 
mortgaged in his possession. Chattel mortgages must 
be filed in the ofiice of the town or county clerk 
according to the laws of the place where they are 
given. The mortgagor usually has sixty days grace 
after the expiration of the mortgage in which to pay 
the amount due. A clause is usually inserted giving 
the mortgagee power of immediate possession. 

"Warranty. A warranty is an undertaking by the 
seller, either expressed or implied, that a certain fact 
in regard to the thing to be sold, is, or shall be, as it 
is promised in the contract. If the warranty is not 
fulfilled the buyer may return the goods, or he may 
receive damages. 

Lien. Lien is the right of the seller to hold goods 
sold until he is paid for them. As soon as they pass 
out of the seller's hands, this right ceases. Workmen 
may " place a lien " on the building upon which they 
have been working, for wages due. 

Bailment. The placing by one person of some 
article of personal property in the possession of an- 
other, to be held till the special purpose of this deliv- 
ery is accomplished and then to be returned. The 
essential element is a change of possession without a 
change of ownership. Common examples of bailments 
are loaning articles, storing goods, hiring horses, carry- 
ing goods from place to place, etc. 

Negotiable Paper. This name is given to a cer- 
tain class of written contracts, such as promissory 
notes. The word negotiable means transferable. 

Bill of Exchange. Bills of exchange are designed 
to secure the payment of a distant debt without the 
transmission of money, by exchanging the debt owed 
by the drawer to the payee for a debt owed by the 
drawee to the drawer. Draft is merely a business 
man's name for a bill of exchange. 

Accommodation Paper. This name is given to 
a note which is signed by one person simply for the 

149 



LAW LESSONS FOR THE PEOPLE. 



accommodation of another. If the party giving the 
accommodation is obliged to pay the note, he can 
always recover from the accommodated party the 
amount so paid. 

Days of Grace. On all notes, except when made 
payable on demand, three days of grace are allowed. 
Even when payable " at sight " or " after sight " days 
of grace are allowed. Notes falling due on Sunday 
or on a holiday are payable the day before. 

Endorsers. By writing his name on the back of a 
note the endorser contracts that the note is genuine 
and binding on all the parties before him ; and that, if 
presentment and demand for its payment are made on 
the acceptor or maker at its maturity, and be is duly 
notified in case payment is refused, he will pay it. 

Protest. On the day of maturity of a bill or note, 
the acceptor or maker becomes liable to the holder for 
its payment whether or not demand for payment is 
made upon him. But indorsers become liable only on 
the condition that the paper shall be presented and 
payment demanded on the day of maturity; and that, 
if payment is refused, notice of the dishonor shall be 
sent to them promptly. Such notice made by a notary 
public is commonly C2i\\ed2i _^rofesf, or the note is said 
to have "gone to protest." If an endorser pays a note, 
he can recover of any one of the parties preceding him 
on the paper. 

Limitations. As a general rule a suit at law must 
be brought on a bill or note within six years after its 
dishonor, or the parties liable on it are discharged. 

Deeds. This name is given to any written instru- 
ment to which a seal is affixed. Commonly, however, 
ic means an instrument for the conveyance of real 
estate. If the grantor is married, his wife should join 
him in signing a deed. Deeds which contain covenants 
warranting the title conveyed, are called warranty 
deeds. A deed, to be a good conveyance of real 
estate, should be (i) signed, (2) sealed, (3) witnessed, 
(4) acknowledged before a justice of the peace, (5) 
delivered, (6) recorded. 

Mortgages. A mortgage is a conveyance of real 
estate as security for a debt or other obligation. To 
Joreclose a mortgage is to cut off the mortgagor's 
equity of redemption. A clause is usually inserted 
giving the mortgagee power, after a certain number of 
days, to sell the property at public auction. The sur- 
plus, if any, belongs to the mortgagor. When a 
mortgage is discharged SMch. discharge should be prop- 
erly recorded. 

150 



LAW LESSONS FOR THE PEOPLE. 



Lease. A lease is a contract, by which the tem- 
porary use and possession of lands and buildings is 
granted by one person to another. 

Poor Debtor. Under the poor debtor laws a man 
who cannot pay a debt may be released by taking what 
is called the ''poor debtor's oath." 

Attachment. This is a writ issued at the com- 
mencement of, or during, a suit at law, commanding 
the sheriff, or other proper officer, to attach the 
property of the defendant to satisfy the demands of 
the plaintiff. In many States the defendant may dis- 
solve an attachment by giving a bond, with sureties, 
that he will pay such judgment as the plaintiff may 
obtain in the suit. 

Judgment. A suit is ended by the court's giving 
a final judgment, either for the plaintiff or for the 
defendant. 

Execution. This is the act of carrying into effect 
the final judgment of the court. 

Garnishment. This is also termed " trustee pro- 
cess." It is a process of attaching money or goods, 
due a defendant, in the hands of a third person. 



Suggestive Questions. 

1. When is a note or draft non-negotiable ? 

2. How does a sight draft differ from a check ? 

3. If a note falls due on Sunday, when is it legally 

due ? 

4. Why are the words z'ahie 7'eceived inserted in 
notes .'^ 

5. Can paper be transferred after maturity } 

6. When is a note due if dated January 31 and 
made at one month ? 

7. What is the meaning of a debt's becoming " out- 
lawed " } 

8. Is there any warranty in a sale by sample 'i 

Hint. — A little law is often a most dangerous thing; for it may 
give an exaggerated sense of assurance which might lead one to 
base _ his action on a wrong application of some self-understood 
principle. There is nothing more expensive than lawsuits. An 
ounce of prevention is here often equivalent to many pounds of 
cure. If you are in doubt about your rights or duties seek the 
advice of some lawyer who is known as a man of integrity rather 
than as smart and unscrupulous. 




NoTH. — Gymnastics should serve the purpose of preserving^ 
health and increasing strength, rather than of curing disease. 
The effect of the free movements may be materially heightened if 
performed with dumb-bells. To be of decided benefit exercises 
should be performed with absolute regularity. Persons who 
have not been in the habit of taking exercise of any kind, beyond 
perhaps an occasional walk, should begin with moderation. The 
best time for exercises is immediately before meals. The dress of 
the gymnast should be comfortable, leaving all movements of the 
body unimpeded. Man can attain complete development, mental 
vigor, and health, only when his various powers are exercised 
equally and brought into harmonious action. 







d I Though severe^l differing opinions exist as to 

^the individual by wi^om the art of printing was 

first discovered; yet all authorities concnr in 

admitting Pet er Schoeffer to be the p|brson 



^ 



+ 



with wooden on^^ the metal being too soft 
to support thp^orcte of the im pression : but 
this defepr was soon, remedied, by mixing 
a sul^^nce with the tr yetal which sufficiently 



9 



who invented cast metal types, having learned 

the art -ef of cutting the letters from the Gu- 

:/ tenbergs/ he is also supposed to havel been 



■The 



^ the first whoengraved on copper plates.l 
A A ' 

following testimony is preseved in the family, 

/ by ^Oo. ^Fred. >^Faustus, ^^of i^Ascheffenbdrg; 

"1 !\ ^€ ter Schoefler, of Gernsheim, perceivin|[ 

liis master Fausts design, and being himself 



desirous I ardently] to improve the art, found 
lOut (by the good providence of God| the 
ethod of cutting { incide^idi) the characters 
in\ a mafrijcr, that the letters might easily be 
J I singJy cast/ instead of blehg cut. He pri-' 
I vately C7it matrice^ for the whole alphabet: 

Faust Vvas so -pleased with the contrivanp 

-'^at heVromised P'eter to give him hja^only 

"^aUghter\ Christina in marriage, ^ar promise 

'^■hich he so\n after performed. 

^^4 ' But thereNAvere manvXufficulties at first 

with these tetth^s, as^tnere had been before 









Q h;»l^ened it/ 



>■ 



j>i^ 




There are thousands of boys who yearly apprentice 
themselves to the old well-known trades such as 
that of carpenter, or bricklayer, or plasterer, or stone- 
mason, or blacksmith, for the simple reason that they 
are not familiar with other trades much less crowded 
and affording steady employment at good wages. In 
the brief space allowed for this article we can do little 
more than give the names of a number of the best 
trades and professions, allowing the ambitious boy 
who reads these pages to seek out additional informa- 
tion for himself. 

Architects: Aptness for drawing necessary. Best 
architects in large cities have incomes equal to the 
best lawyers. 

Book-binders: The work of folding, collating, 
sewing, covering, laying on gold, etc., is usually done 
by girls. They earn about six dollars a week. The 
heavier work is done by men whose wages rarely 
exceed three dollars a day. 

Brassfounders : A branch of work which gives 
employment to an immense number of men. It is 
clean and comparatively light, but is usually considered 
injurious to health. 

Designers : See department of mechanical drawing 
and designing. Large wages are paid designers who 
prepare original designs for wall-paper, carpets, cur- 
tains, and all kinds of decorative material. 

Electrotypers : The chief work of electrotype 
foundries is that of preparing book plates from type, 
and of duplicating engravings. The work is done by 
men, and the wages average about $15 a week. 

Civil Engineers : Must have a liking for mathe- 
matical studies. The best modern schools, such as 
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, now give a 
thorough practical education. The engineers who plan 
our great buildings, bridges, railways, tunnels, steam- 
boats, etc., receive immense sums of money for their 
work. 

155 



GOOD OPENINGS IN NEW TRADES. 



Engravers : The process engraving of modern 
times has greatly reduced the demand for all kinds of 
kand engraving for illustrating purposes. 

Glass-makers : There are few occupations which 
show such numerous varieties as those in which glass 
is manipulated. Ordinary workmen receive about $i8 
a week, while good glass cutters receive from $20 to 
$40 a week. Most operatives work by the piece. 

Printing : There are several departments. Good 
pressmen who are capable of running the large steam- 
presses are usually paid about ^20 a week. Composi- 
tors are paid about fifty cents per thousand ems for 
type-setting and earn about $15 a week. In large 
^ties a good deal of the type-setting in job offices is 
done by girls. See the chapter on reporting. 

Type'-writing : The supply at present is fully 
equal to the demand. Most of the work is done by 
girls. They earn from six to twelve dollars a week. 

Carving : Wood and stone carving afford excellent 
openings for boys who have drawing and designing 
ability. 

Miscellaneous Trades and Employments : 

Accountants, advertising agents, collection agents, 
purchasing agents, analytical chemists, appraisers, 
assayers, cabinet makers, boiler makers, box makers, 
plumbers, gas fitters, brokers, carriage makers, paint- 
ers, china decorators, surveyors, sadlers, commission 
merchants, contractors, coppersmiths, costumers, 
bakers, curriers, decorators, dentists, doctors, chiropo- 
dists, detectives, diamond cutters, die sinkers, dress 
and coat designers, druggists, importers, electricians, 
embossers, enamelers, exporters, florists, iron-founders, 
fresco-painters, furriers, galvanizers, gilders, glass 
stainers, glaziers, importers, inspectors, Japanners, 
kalsominers, lawyers, doctors, teachers, lithographers, 
stationers, locksmiths, machinists, manicures, metal 
roofers, metallurgists, millwrights, mineralogists, musi- 
cians, newspaper correspondents, hospital nurses, opti- 
cians, sign painters, paper dealers, paper hangers 
perfumers, photo-engravers, photographers, piano 
tuners, platers, polishers, publishers, reporters, sculp- 
tors, ship chandlers, silver-smiths, smelters, soap 
makers, steam fitters, railway conductors, brakemen, 
steel engravers, taxidermists, telegraphers, turners, 
undertakers, upholsterers, advertising writers, veterin- 
ary surgeons, wagon makers, carpet weavers, wire 
workers, v;ool brokers. 

156 




INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 

The field of electrical science offers, at the 
present time, more and better openings for young men, 
and more rapid advancement for the able and the 
ambitious, than almost any other wage-earning pursuit. 
Young men who are anxious to enter this field should 
prepare themselves for its practical affairs by a thorough 
study of the subject. For those of limited means 
who wish to study at home we know of no better 
course than that arranged by Boston Home College. 
The few pages of hints given here will prove valuable 
to all who are anxious to become familiar with general 
principles and much used terms. 

HINTS AND HELPS. 

Ammeter, or Ampere- Meter, an instrument for 
measuring the current passing through a conductor. 

Conductors. Metals readily allow electricity to 
escape through them. Non-conductors such as glass, 
rosin, silk, wool, india-rubber, offer great resistance to 
its passage. 

Insulated. A body is said to be insulated when it 
is not in contact with any other bodies except non- 
conductors. 

Positive electricity repels positive electricity and 
attracts negative electricity. In like manner negative 
electricity repels negative and attracts positive. 

Measured. Electricity is measured by the repulsion 
or attraction which it is capable of exerting. The unit 
quantity is that which, if collected at a point, would 
exert unit force upon an equal quantity at unit distance. 
The force varies inversely as the square of the distance, 
so that at a mutual distance of 2 units the force exerted 
by one unit quantity upon another would be \ of the 
unit force. 

Density. The electric density on any small 
element of the surface of a charged conductor signifies 
the quantity of electricity per unit area at this point. 

The 'Leyden jar is a contrivance for accumulating 
large quantities of electricity. 

Heat. Electric currents produce heat in the wires 
through which they flow. Short and thin wires of iron 
are easily melted. 



LESSUNS IN ELECTRICITY. 



Ohm. The unit by which the resistance offered to 
the passage of an electric current is measured. 

Meter. An instrument for measuring the amount 
of electrical energy used. 

Motor. A general name applied to electrical 
machines used for imparting mechanical power. 

Parallel -wiring. A system of electrical distri- 
bution, in which each lamp has its individual flow and 
return wires, no current passing through two lamps in 
a series. 

Permanent magnet. A piece of steel or load- 
stone containing enduring magnetic force, and requiring 
no electric current to magnetize it. 

Photometer. An instrument for measuring the 
intensity of light. 

Electro-metallurgy. The science or process of 
electrically decomposing solutions or salts of metals. 

Magnetic field. The term used to express the 
space between the poles of a magnet through which 
the magnetic lines of force exist. 

Filament. The thread-like substance of an incan- 
descent lamp, composed usually of vegetable matter 
which by the application of intense heat has been 
carbonized. 

Galvanic electricity is that produced by chemical 
action. 

Galvanometer. An instrument used in testing 
for showing the flow of an electric current. 

Horse-po"wer. The unit by which the rate of 
doing work is measured. It is equal to the power 
expended in raising 33,000 pounds one foot high m a 
minute. 

Earth-return. A circuit in which the ground 
forms part of the conducting path. 

Electrodes. The two terminals forming the 
positive and negative poles in a battery. 

Electro-magnet. A bar of soft iron temporarily 
magnetized by the influence of an electric current 
passing through an encircling wire. 

Counter-shafting. Intermediate shafting used to 
distribute power or to increase or decrease speed of 
machinery. 

Distribution-board. A board from which branch 
wires or cables aie led to various positions. 

Dynamo. A machine for producing electricity by 
transforming mechanical work into electrical energy. 

158 



LESSONS IN ELECTRICITY. 



The dynamo is the mechanical power which '* manu- 
factures " electricity ; the 7?iotor is the machine which 
changes the electricity into mechanical power. 

Electrical energy. The capacity of electricity for 
doing work, whether for electric lighting, or for power 
or traction purposes. It is directly proportionate to 
the amount of current and its pressure. Thus by 
multiplying the flow of currents in amperes by the 
pressure in volts the amount of electrical energy is 
obtained. 

Cell. A box or other receptacle containing the 
elements and solutions necessary for the production or 
storage of electrical energy. A number of such cells 
are termed respectively a battery or an accumulator. 

Ampere. The unit by which the flow^ of current is 
measured. 

Arc lamp. Produced by the electric current flow- 
ing between two carbon points which are slightly 
separated. 

Arm.ature. That portion of a dynamo which 
revolves between the magnets, and in which the electric 
currents are induced. 

Batteries. A means of generating electric currents 
by chemical action. 

Brush. An arrangement of copper wires or gauze 
for collecting the current from the commutator of a 
dynamo. 

Candle-power, The standard wax candle used 
for measuring the luminosity of any light burns 120 
grains per hour. 

Carbons for arc lamps are rods or pencils generally 
made from powdered gas coke. 

Incandescent lamp. A glass ball^^from which 
the air has been exhausted, containing a carbonized 
filament which becomes incandescent on the passage of 
an electric current through it. 

Mains. Copper cables or other means used for the 
purpose of conveying electricity, chiefly applied to the 
larger conductors. 

Potential. Pressure ; the difference of potential 
is the electrical pressure between any two points, and 
is measured in volts. 

Primary Cables. In an electrical system of dis- 
tribution where high-pressure current is transformed to 
low pressure all cables and devices conveying the 
high-pressure current are termed primary. 

159 



LESSONS IN ELECTRICITY. 



Resistance-coil. A coil of wire offering a certain 
known resistance to the passage of a current. 

Safety -fuse. A device for automatically stopping 
the flow of electricity m case of accident or defects in 
the conductors. 

Switch. An arrangement for breaking or complet- 
ing an electric circuit. 

Volt. The unit by which the electro-motive force 
or pressure of current is measured. 

The Watt. The unit by which electrical work (or, 
in other words, the electrical energy consumed) is 
measured. It is equal to the current of one ampere 
flowing at a pressure of one volt. 

Watt-hour. A term used to indicate the con- 
sumption of the electrical energy of one watt in one 
hour. By multiplying the current in amperes by the 
pressure in volts, and again by the hours in use, the 
amount of electrical energy consumed is obtained in 
watt hours. 

Three much used terms. Remember that the 
voll \s the practical unit of measurement of pressure; 
the amp^ere is the practical unit of measurement of the 
rate of flow; and the olwi is the practical unit of 
measurement of resistance. 

Transmitter. That part of the telephone into 
which we speak is called the transmitter. This is 
usually a piece of wood having a round mouthpiece 
cut through it. At the other side of this mouthpiece 
is placed a diaphragm made of a thin piece of metal, 
which is held in place by a light spring. Behind this 
diaphragm and very close to it is placed a carbon 
button. Between this carbon button and the diaphragm 
is a small piece of platinum, which is placed so as to 
touch both the button and diaphragm very lightly. 

Receiver. That part of the telephone which is 
held to the ear, and by which we can hear the words 
spoken into the transmitter at the other end of the 
line. 

Multiple Arc. The name applied to the method 
of wiring adopted for incandescent lamps. 

Open circuit batteries are those which are used 
where the electricity is not required constantly without 
intermission, for instance, in telephones, electric bells, 
annunciators, etc. 

Trolley. The pole connecting the electric car 
with the overhead wire and through which the 
electricity passes to the motor below. 

i6o 




The Chairman. He must remember that the 
great purpose of all rules and forms is to subserve the 
will of the assembly rather than to restrain it ; to facili- 
tate, and not to obstruct, the expression of their delib- 
erate sense. The Chairman rises to put a question to 
vote, but may state it sitting. He should always say, 
"The Chair decides so and so." He cannot interrupt 
a speaker who is not transgressing any rules of the 
assembly. He may vote when the vote is by ballot. 
The Chairman should never put a motion relating to 
himself. This is done by the person making the 
motion. When a member rises to speak, he says, 
"Mr. Chairman." The Chairman responds, saying, 

"Mr. •." When a motion is before the meeting 

the Chairman says, " The motion is so and so, are you 
ready for the question?" If no one rises to speak, he 
says, "As many as are in favor, etc., will say aye ;'* 
after the ayes have voted, he says, "As many as are of 
contrary opinion will say no." When the Chair is 
asked to nominate a committee, he reads the names he 
has chosen and says, "As many as are in favor of 
these gentlemen constituting the committee will say 
aye." The following are a few of the ordinary forms 
covering other duties : " Is there any other business ? " 
— " What is the pleasure of the meeting ? " — " What 
will you do with the report ? " — "The report is ac- 
cepted" — "The minutes stand approved" — "The 
next business in order is so and so " — " This meeting 
stands adjourned." 

Voting. If, when the Chair announces a vote, any 
member doubts the vote, the Chairman says, "A 
division seems necessary ; those in favor of the motion 
shall rise, etc." Tellers may be appointed to count 
the vote. Until the negative is put, it is in order for 
any member, in the same manner as if the voting had 
not been commenced, to rise and speak, and thus re- 
new the debate. In such cases the question is in the 
same condition as if it had never been put. The 
assembly and not the Chair orders a vote by ballot. 
Tellers are appointed by the Chair. Where there is 
only one candidate for an office, and the constitution 
requires the vote to be by ballot, it is common to 

i6i 



RULES OF ORDER FOR BUSINESS MEETINGS. 

authorize the clerk to cast the vote of the assembly for 
such and such a person; if anyone objects, it is neces- 
sary to ballot in the usual way. 

Motions. A principal motion is made to bring 
before the assembly any particular subject. No prin- 
cipal motion can be made when any other question is 
before the assembly. Seco7idary motions are such as 
are applied to other motions, for the purpose of most 
appropriately disposing of them. Secondary motions 
take precedence of principal motions and must be 
decided before the principal question can be acted 
upon. A motion to adjourn, when unqualified, takes 
precedence of all others. It is not debatable, cannot 
be amended, nor can a vote on it be reconsidered. A 
motion to refer a question to a committee can be made 
while principal and secondary motions are pending. 
A motion may be made to defer action to a certain 
time. A question may be set aside temporarily by 
moving that it " lie on the table." Such a motion 
allows of neither debate nor amendment. If carried 
the question "lies on the table" until the assembly 
votes to take it up again. Debate may be cut off by 
ordering the "previous question." The Chair immedi- 
ately says, " Shall the main question be now put } " A 
two-thirds vote is necessary. When a question is 
introduced that the assembly do not wish to consider, 
the proper course, is for some one to " object to the 
consideration of the question." No seconder is 
needed. The Chair says, " Will the assembly consider 
this question } " A two-thirds negative vote will dis- 
miss it. After a question has been adopted, any one 
who voted for it may move to "reconsider the vote." 
Such a motion, if carried, opens up the entire original 
debate. If a speaker uses improper language some 
one may say, "I call the gentleman to order," when 
the Chair decides whether the language is disorderly. 

Debate. All remarks must be addressed to the 
Chairman and confined to the question. When it is 
evident that many are in favor of a motion the Chair 
need not wait for a seconder. The Chair says, " The 
question is so and so, what is your pleasure regarding 
it .'"' When an amendment is before the assembly the 
main question cannot be debated. When referring to 
another member, a speaker should say, " the gentleman 
who spoke last, etc.," rather than use his name. 
Remember that it is not the man but the measure 
which is the subject of debate. If the Chairman rises 
to state a point of order, or give information within his 
privilege, the speaker takes his seat. Debate is not 
closed until both the affirmative and negative are put. 

162 




INTRODUCTORY. 

This department describes a new system of short- 
hand, not a new system of phonography. It does 
not claim to be scientific, or to stand comparison with 
other systems requiring months of study and practice. 
For the great multitude who can use a knowledge of 
shorthand to advantage only occasionally, this system 
will be found quite helpful. As will be seen, but little 
is used beside the ordinary letters of the alphabet, the 
nine digits, and the simple mathematical and other 
signs with which all are familiar. Those who have 
never given the matter thought will be surprised to 
notice how few letters or characters are necessary for 
the intelligent writing of any word. The omission of 
superfluous letters alone reduces the text about one- 
third. 

I. WORD CHARACTERS. 



v' 


a, an 




UL. 


these, those 




the 




^-^z 


at 


— 


cf 




L 


on 


— 


for 




-f- 


by 


= 


from 




X 


to 


II 


with 




^ 


this, that 


v-^ 


under 




< 


so 


/— ^ 


over 




z: 


as — as, so — as 


& 


and 




• 


not 


V 


but 




• • 


if 


> 


as 




4- 


in 




2. PREFIX AND AFFIX SIGNS. 


1 


ch, sh 




6 


( ain, ine, en, ian 
1 ion, eon, ign 


2 


pre, pro, per, 


pur 


7 


ary, ery, ory 


3 


able, ible 




8 


ing 


4 


ance, ence, ense 


9 


sion, tion 


5 


cial, tial 







ant, ent 



163 



FIGURE SHORTHAND. 



3. COMBINATIONS. 

II . with the &.~^ and this 

=:y/ from a L^ on a 

— . of the X. to the 

. for the ^-nX over to 

-y/ for a ; li . not with the 

="31 from this -^~2 by this 

n~ for these * ^-^. not under the 

^^~zi under this =^-^ from under 

4. RULES. 

1. The vowels have always their usual alphabet 
sound : 

a as in fate 

e as in me 

i as in pine 

o as in note 

u as in tube 

2. The short vowels, as a in far, e in met, i in pin, 
o in not, and u in tub, are usually omitted entirely. 

3. Three double vowels are written as follows : 

) ou as in pound 

( oi as in boil 

o ew as in chew 

4. Omit all unnecessary letters whether vowels or 
consonants. 

5. ILLUSTRATIONS. 
]| . xkr9 with the excursion 

=. Irl from the church 

21s3:] t3 purchase this table 

1 2fr ~zi I prefer that 

2od II . tk8 proceed with the talking 
=-zi od3 s)nd from this audible sound 
yf Irt wlk a short walk 

St + • tp gl7 sit in the top gallery 
18l "::i h)s shingle this house 

s8 it —- X me sing it over to me 
■3: s ^ IgO lez this is an elegant cheese 



FIGURE SHORTHAND. 



6. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


2y prey 


n3 


nible 


2p prop 


d4 


dance 


2ty pretty 


l4 


lance 


Iv prove 


f4 


fence 


2s purse 


t4 


tense 


t3 table 


h4 


hence 


f3 fable 


p4 


pence 


c3 cable 


pr4 


prance 


g3 gable 


Fr4 


France 


st3 stable 


m6 


mine 


b3 bible 


r5 


rain 


m7 Mary 


214 


perchance 


v7 very 


2b3 


probable 


th8 thing 


14 


chance 


r8 ring 


20 


chant 


br8 bring 


2v0 


prevent 


s8 sing 


LmO 


lament 


k8 king 


st7 


story 


st8 string 


Lf3 


laughable 


w8 Tving 


a£3 


affable 


sO cant 


so5 


social 


lO lent 


ac9 


action 


Irg charge 


gt 


forget 


lep cheap 


2cd 


precede 


Int chant 


'"^tk 


attack 


l(c choice 


2su 


pursue 


IbL chisel 


18l 


shingle 



7. RULES. 

5. As far as possible let each small word of frequent 
occurrence be represented by a single letter, as : 

m am or me g go u you 

r are w we h he, him 

t it 

6. Small words which cannot be conveniently repre- 
sented by a single letter, should be written with two 
letters, as : 

hv have sn seen -ws was 

yr your hr her 

165 




Good Puzzles. 

A Paradox. I went to South America and stopped there, but 
was sent home because I didn't go there. What am I ? (A watch.) 

Two Riddles, i. What is that which every one can divide, 
but no one can see where it has been divided ? 2. What is per- 
fect with a head, perfect without a head, perfect with a tail, per- 
fect without a tail, perfect with either, neither, or both ? 

For Farmers. A man and a boy are engaged to clear up a • 
potato field. The man can dig as fast as the boy can cut the tops, 
but can cut the tops twice as fast as the boy can dig. In what 
proportion should they be paid ? 

A Magical Arrangement. Arrange these twelve counters so 
that, instead of counting four count- 
ers in a row, they will count five ^^ Mfk ^j^ ^^ 
in a row. The counters are to be 
kept in the form of a square with 

an equal number on each side. ^^ ^^ 

(This is done by making the corners 
two deep, that is, by taking one 

off each side and putting it on top ^^ ^^ 

of a corner counter.) 

A Good Sell. I can stretch my 
arms apart, having a coin in each ^^ ^P ^9 ^P 

hand, and yet, without bringing 

my hands together, I can cause both coins to come into the same 
hand. (I put down one coin and pick it up with the other hand.) 

An Old Problem. A ferryman has a fox, a goose, and a peck 
of oats to carry over a river, but on account of the smaUness of the 
boat, he can carry over only one at a time. How can this be done 
so as not to leave the fox with the goose, or the goose with the 
oats ? 

Worth Trying. In a stable where there are some horses and 
grooms, can be counted 82 feet and 22 heads. How many horses 
and how many grooms were in the building? 

Corners and Cats. A room with eight corners had a cat in 
each corner, seven cats before each cat, and a cat on every cat's 
tail. What was the total number of cats? (Ans. 8.) 

Mechanic's Puzzle. Cut a pi^ce of cardboard, ten inches 
long by two inches wide, in such a manner as to form a perfect 
square, without waste. 

16& 



GAMES, PUZZLES, ETC. 



A Droll Drawing-Room Trick. 

You take six pieces of paper ; place three of them on the back of 
your hand, and, as a preliminary operation, blow them away with 
an air of great mystery, informing your audience at the same time 
that you are about to explain to them some new kind of magnet- 
ism. Then, placing the other three pieces on your hand, you 
say — "Which of the three pieces do the company desire shall 
remain on my hand when I blow on them?" When one has been 
selected, you place the forefinger of your other hand upon it and 
blow the other pieces away. The absurdity of this mode of solving 
the problem is sure to create much amusement. 

To Tie a String With Your Teeth. 

If well done this is a first-class trick. Take a piece of cord about 
two feet long, and after tying the ends together arrange in the 
shape shown in the figure. Be very careful to do this without 
showing the loop. Now place your thumb and finger on the loop, 

^===:^ 

and ask some one in the company to cut both strings (close to 
where you hold them). This will leave what looks like two 
separate strings of equal length. Put the two ends including the 
loop in your mouth, and after removing the short piece of string 
with your tongue and putting it away carefully in the recesses of 
your mouth, remove the string, which will appear in one piece 
tied apparently as you intimated you would do. 

Quibbles. 

1. What is that which cats have, but nothing else has? (Kit- 
tens.) 

2. Can you put one of your hands where the other cannot touch 
it? (On elbow.) 

3. Can you place a pencil on the floor in such a way that no one 
can jump over it? (Pat close to wall.) 

4. Can you push a chair through a finger ring? (Put on ring 
and push chair with that finger.) 

5. What word is that composed of five letters, from which if 
two letters are taken one remains? (Money.) 

6. What makes more noise than a pig under a gate ? (Two 
pigs.) 

Fireside Mesmerism. 

Take a gold ring — the larger the better. Attach the ring to a 
silk thread about twelve inches long. Fasten the other end of the 
thread round the nail joint of your right fore-finger, and let the 
167 



GAMES, PUZZLES, ETC. 



ring hang about half an inch above the surface of the table, on 
which you rest your elbow to steady your hand. Hold your finger 
horizontally, with the thumb thrown back as far as possible from 
the rest of the hand. If there be nothing on the table, the 
ring will soon become stationary. Place some silver, say three 
half-dollars, immediately below it, and the ring will begin to move 
backwards and forwards, to you and from you. Now bring your 
thumb in contact with your forefinger, and the movements of the 
ring will become transverse to their former swing. Or this may be 
effected by making a lady take hold of your disengaged hand. 
When the transverse motion is fairly established, let a gentleman 
take hold of the lady's disengaged hand, and the ring will change 
back to its former course. Instead of silver you can suspend the 
ring over your left forefinger with similar results. 

The Wonderful Cups. 

Upon the table place three pieces of bread, or any other eatable, 
at a little distance from each other, and cover each with a cup. 
After moving the cups about a little, take up one, and, removing 
the bread, put it into your mouth, letting the company see that you 
swallow it , then raise the second cup, and eat the bread which was 
under that; then proceed to the third cup in the same manner. 
Having eaten the three pieces, and having moved the cups about a 
little, ask any person in the company to choose which cup he 
would like the three pieces of bread to be under, and when he has 
made his choice of one of the cups, put it on your head, and ask 
him if he docs not think they are under it. 

For Ferrymen. 

A man and his wife, each v/eighing 150 pounds, with two sons, 
each weighing 75 pounds, have to cross a river in a boat which 
is capable of carrying only 150 pounds weight. How will they get 
across ? 

A Very Good Question. 

A gentleman who owns four hundred acres of land in the form of 
a square desired to keep one hundred acres, also in the form of a 
square, in one corner, and divide the remainder equally among 
his four sons, so that each son should have his lot of the same 
shape as his brother's. How may this be done? 

A Good Christmas Gift. 

A gentleman whose daughter wanted some Christmas money, 
was asked if she would be satisfied with one cent on the first day of 
December, two cents on the second day, four on the third, and so 
on, doubling the amount each day until the last day of the month. 
She declined the proposition, as she thought the amount would not 
be sufficient for her wants. Now, what amount would she have 
received if she had accepted the offer ? 
168 



GAMES, PUZZLES, ETC. 



To Cut a Hole in a Visiting Card 

LARGE ENOUGH TO CRAWL THROUGH. 

Take a card— a small one will do — cut it down the middle as 
shown in the Figure. Leave a small space uncut at each end. Thea 



fold and cut across from each side as shown in the figure. When 
the card is opened the " hole'^ will be large enough to pass through. 

The Magic Square. With seven- 
teen matches make six squares 
similar to diagram. Now the ptizzle 
is to remove only five matches, 
and yet leave no more than three 
perfect squares of the same size 
remaining. 

Wrinkles and Kinks. 

Newspaper, You can place a newspaper on the floor in such a 
way that two persons can stand upon it and not be able to touch 
one another with their hands, by putting the paper under a door 
and requiring one to stand in each room on half the paper. 

Problem in Money. Place ten half-dimes in a row upon a 
table. Then taking up any one of the series place it upon 
some other, with this proviso, that you pass over just one dime. 
Repeat this until you have lifted all the coins. Try it. 

For Carpenters. There is a hole in the barn floor, just two 
feet in width and twelve feet long. How can it be entirely cov- 
ered with a board three feet wide and eight. feet long, by cutting 
the board only once in two. 

For the Office Boys. 

1. If J of 6 be 3, what must ^4 of 20 be ? (7/^.) 

2. Which is heavier, a pound of lead or a pound of wool ? 

3. What is the difference between half a dozen dozen and six 
dozen dozen? 

4. Write down 13 in such a way that when half of it is rubbed 
out 8 shall remain. (XIII.) 

5. Write 24 with 3 equal figures, none of them being 8. 
(22 + 2.) 

6. What is the difference between twice twenty-five and twice 
five and twenty ? 

169 



GAMES, PUZZLES, ETC. 



7. If you cut thirty yards of cloth into one yard pieces, and cut 
one yard every day, how long will it take? (29 days.) 

8. What three figures multiplied by 4 will make exactly five ? 

g. What part of one-half square yard is one-half yard square ? 

10. What is that which is lengthened by being cut at both 
ends ? 



X 



Japanese Puzzle. 



X 



X 



X 



By moving forward one move at a time, or by hopping over one 
man, as in checkers, in how few moves can the white man pass the 
black ? 

The Nine Digits. 

I I. Place the nine digits in the 

2 accompanying square, one digit to 

3 each division, in such a way that 

4 when added vertically, horizontally, 

5 or diagonally, the sum shall be 
O always the same. 

/ 2. Take the nine digits and 

8 arrange them in a sum that (in- 

O stead of making 45) will add up 

^S.^ exactly one hundred. 

Hanging Without a Cord. 

Soak a thread in strong salt and water ; dry thoroughly, and 
repeat this two or three times. This must be done privately 
beforehand. Make use of this thread to suspend a ring. Set fire 
to the thread, which will burn from end to end, but all will be 
surprised to see that the ring does not fall. The ashes will sup- 
port it. Attach four pieces of thread to the four corners of a little 
piece of muslin, so as to form a miniature hammock. Soak the 
whole very thoroughly in salt water ; then dry it. Repeat the 
operation three or four times. Place a blower e^g in the ham- 
mock, then set fire to the muslin. If the experiment has been 
prcSperly done the egg will remain. 



A Good Problem. 

Two men, A and B went to purchase some oil from C. A had a 
5 gallon can, B a 3 gallon can, and C an 8 gallon can full of oil and 
no other measure. A and B want each 4 gallons. How can C 
measure it exactly, usmg only three cans ? 
170 



GAMES, PUZZLES, ETC. 



For Young Mathematicians. 

1. A Bedouin dies, leaving by will 17 horses to his 3 sons. To 
the oldest he leaves one-half his horses, to the next one-third, and 
to the youngest one-ninth. A dispute arising as to how the will 
can be carried out, without sacrificing one of the horses, the matter 
is referred to a dervish, who puts his own horse with the 17, then 
gives the half of 18 to one son, one-third to another, and one-ninth 
to the last, and then takes his own horse again. 

2. Divide 2 by 5 so that the result will be 1000. 

3. Place 15 sheep in 4 pens so that there will be the same 
number of sheep in each pen. 

4. Ten travellers come to an inn and demand each a single 
room. The host says, " I have only 9 rooms, but 1 think I can 
manage it." He said to one, "Will you wait here until I have 
placed your friends? " He then put the 2d in the ist room, the 3d 
in the 2d, the 4th in the 3d, the 5th in the 4th, the 6th in the 5th, 
the 7th in the 6th, the 8th in the 7th, the gth in the 8th room, and 
lie then returns for the last man and puts him in the 9th room. 

5. Arrange 5 numbers, none of which are greater than ten, so 
that when read from left to right the one on the right will always be 
nearer to 10 than the preceding one, and the first number will be 
nearer 10 than the fifth. 

Conundrums. 

1. A visitor passing through a jail said to one of the prisoners, 
"*' Brothers and sisters have I none, yet this man's father was my 
father's son." What was his relation to the prisoner ? 

2. What makes a leopard spotted? (Ans. The spots.) 

3. A boy on entering a room is told, " My son, bring me my 
boots." The boy replies, "It is true I am your son, but you are 
not my father, and, until vou can tell me how this can be so, I 
won't bring you the boots." 

4. Why should travellers over the great desert never want for 
food? Because of the sand-which-is there. 

Magic Square. 

Arrange the numbers from i to 16 in a square, so that the sum of 
the figures in any row, vertical, horizontal, or oblique, will be equal 
to 34. According to M. Ferniele, whose work on magic squares 
was published in 1698, there are 20,922,789,888,000 possible arrange- 
ments of the figures i to 16 in a square, and 878 arrangements that 
will form a magic square. 

Peculiar Properties of the Numbers 37 and 73. 

The number 37 is one which, being multiplied by each of the 
figures of arithmetical progression, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 
all the products w^hich result from it are composed of three repe- 
titions of the same figure ; and the sum of these figures is equal to 
that by which you multiplied the 37. 

37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 

3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 

III 222 333 444 555 666 j-j-j 888 999 

The number 73, multiplied by each of the numbers of arith- 
metical progression, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, the six products 
which result from this multiplication are terminated by one of the 
nine different figures, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. These figures will be 
found in the reverse order of that of the progression. 

171 




There is only one perfect way of learning to draw, 
and that is to begin at the very beginning ; think 
nothing too unimportant, and, above all, never grow 
impatient, no matter how slowly you seem to be get- 
ting on. The following hints and suggestions will help 
you. 

Materials. Get a good HB pencil to begin with. 
Be particular also about your india-rubber and your 
paper. The sponge rubber is the best. For ordinary 
work cartridge paper is good enough. You must have 
a drawing board and thumb tacks. Until you have 
learned outline work thoroughly you will not need any 
other materials. 

Lines and Curves. Your first exercises should 
consist of freehand work in straight and curved lines. 
You should not leave this work until you are able to 
draw perfect perpendicular and horizontal lines, and to 
draw parallel lines with equal spacing. A good 
artistic line should never penetrate or impress the 
paper. Practise drawing graceful curved lines. 

From Nature. Pick a fresh, green leaf from the 
nearest tree or bush, and having laid it before you, 
try to copy its curved border and well marked vein- 
lines. Next take a small branch with perhaps three or 
four leaves attached. After this get hold of a bare 
branch and set it up before you. (See opposite page). 
You will be astonished as you study it carefully how 
very beautiful it is in the intricacy and variety of its 
details and graceful gradations of taperings and twist- 
ings. Your next study should be a stalk of grass or 
grain. Pluck up one as near the root as you can, and 
set to work upon it while it is wavy and fresh. Now 
select any simple subject such as a bunch of apple 
blossoms, a lily, or an old tree. 

Rules of Perspective. Directly opposite your 
eyes, as you look straight out, and on a level with your 
eyes, is your point of sight, or the centre point of your 
landscape. An imaginary line passes from your eye to 
this point of distance. This is called your first or 
centre line. It is made straight out from you, or per- 
pendicularly from your standpoint, that is, from the 
bottom of your paper to the point of sight. Across 
the paper, and on a level with your point of sight, you 



y y 




PRACTICAL LESSONS IN DRAWING. 



draw a horizontal line, which represents the horizon. 
This line governs all the rest, because all objects above 
that line you look up to, and objects below that line 
you look down upon. So you have, as the nucleus of 
your landscape, the standpoint, point of sight, perpen> 
dicular line of sight, and the horizontal level line. All 
other lines vanish into the point of sight. Practise 
perspective by drawing an ordinary square box, show- 
ing one side and the top. Every object in drawing, no 
matter what its position, must be governed by these 
fixed rules of perspective. If in your landscape there 
is a tree thirty feet high in the foreground and another 
the same height a quarter of a mile away, you are 
absolutely sure to get these two trees proportionately 
correct in your drawing if you draw according to the 
laws of perspective. You may have any number of 
accidental -^OYiW^ of sight according to the number and 
position of the objects to be drawn. 

Measurements. To measure exactly, you must 
close one eye, and hold your pencil out at the full 
extent of your arm firmly in your clenched fingers, 
using your thumb to mark off the length upon the pen- 
cil as you look past it with one eye at the object you 
are measuring. 

The Human Face. A man's head is four nose 
lengths ; thus, from the top of the crown to the fore- 
head, one; forehead, one ; from nose to foot of chin, 
one. The width of a face should be two-thirds of its 
length, or two nose lengths. The width and diameter 
of the neck should be two nose lengths. The ear is 
one nose length, and should be horizontally on a line 
with the nose. The space between the eyes should be 
half a nose length. The centre of the eye ball should 
be perpendicular with the extreme ends of the mouth. 

Shading. Pencil shading is the most delicate and 
valuable if it is done properly. To be a success it 
should either be hatched, stippled, or laid on the paper 
so lightly that the natural grain appears even in the 
darkest shadows. The India rubber should not be 
used. To hatch is to produce a shadow by broken 
lines crossed at angles ; to stipple is to produce a 
shadow by dots. A round ball is the best object to 
practice shading from. Place it where the light falls 
on one side leaving the other in a deep shadow, and 
try to get the gradations and softness shown in the 
real object. 

Charcoal. With a piece of charred vine-branch, 
which you can buy in any art store, you can reach the 
highest point which black and white can produce. It 
is easily erased, can be worked about as you like, is 




I^OWTb SUCCEED AT 

CIVIL SERVICE ' 

EXAMINATIONS 





GENERAL INFORMATION. 

It is pretty generally known, that to secure a position 
in the departmental, postal, or customs service it is 
necessary to pass successfully a civil service ex- 
amination. The examinations are held in all the 
large cities at stated intervals, and any citizen of the 
United States who fills out the necessary blanks 
satisfactorily, may be an applicant for examination. 
More than two thirds of the positions are open to both 
men and women. 

There are five branches of the classified civil 
service : 

1. The departmental service. 

2. The customs service. 

3. The postal service. 

4. The railway mail service. 

5. The Indian service. 

No person who is an applicant for examination, or 
who is an eligible, in one branch of the classified 
service, shall at the same time, be an applicant for 
examination in any other branch. The commission 
may refuse to examine a candidate who would be 
physically unable to perform the duties required. 
For blanks and full particulars regarding departmental, 
railway mail, or Indian service examinations write to 
the U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington, 
D.C. The application forms for customs and postal 
service are supplied by the local Civil Service Secre- 
tary at any large customs house or post office. 

DEPARTMENTAL EXAMINATIONS. 

The departmental examinations are intended to test 
the fitness of applicants for admission to the class- 
ified departmental service at Washington. The 
examinations are held at regular intervals in central 
177 



HOW TO SUCCEED AT CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATIONS. 

cities in every State of the Union. The appoint- 
ments of successful candidates must be apportioned 
among the several States, so that a candidate who 
writes in Oregon has as good a chance to secure an 
appointment as one who writes in Pennsylvania or, 
for that matter, in the District of Columbia. 

Copyist. $900 per annum, and under. Subjects — Spelling 
Penmanship, Copying, Arithmetic (to percentage). 

Clerk. ^1000 per annum, and upward. Subjects — Spelling, 
Copying, Penmanship, Arithmetic, Easy Book-keeping, Grammar, 
Letter Writing, U.S. Geography, History, and Civil Government. 

Special and supplementary examinations are held 
for places which require certain technical, professional, 
or scientific knowledge. Applicants must be not 
younger than twenty years. Papers are graded on a 
scale of TOO. To be eligible the candidate must secure 
a general average of at least 70 per cent. Vacancies 
in the classified departmental service, unless among 
the places excepted from examination, if not filled by 
either promotion or transfer, are filled from the lists of 
eligibles from each State, those standing highest 
taking first preference. 

CUSTOMS EXAMINATIONS. 

To test fitness for admission to the classified 
customs service, examinations are provided as 
follows : 

Clerks. Subjects — The same as for clerks in the departmental 
examinations. 

Day Inspectors. Subjects — Spelling, Copying, Penmanship, 
Arithmetic, Grammar, Geography of America and Europe. 

Gaugers. Subjects — Spelling, Copying, Penmanship, Practical 
Arithmetic, Practical Tests. 

Examiners. Subjects — Spelling, Copying, Penmanship, 
Arithmetic, Grammar, Practical Questions and Tests. 

Such other competitive examinations as the 
commission may from time to time determine to be 
necessary are held to test fitness for other positions in 
this service. The marking of the papers is very 
similar to the method adopted in the departmental 
examinations. 

178 



HOW TO SUCCEED AT CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATIONS. 

POSTAL EXAMINATIONS. 

To test the fitness for admission to the classified 
postal service, examinations are provided as follows : 

Clerks. Subjects — Spelling, Copjdng, Penmanship, Arithme- 
tic, Grammar, Letter Writing, Geography, History and Govern- 
ment of the United States, Reading Addresses, Pliysical Tests. 

Carriers. Subjects — The foregoing (without History and 
Civil Government). Also knowledge of the locality of the post- 
office delivery. 

Messengers. Subjects — Spelling, Copying, Penmanship, 
Easy Arithmetic, Pliysical Tests. This examination is used also 
to test the fitness for junior clerks, stampers, and other positions 
the duties of which are chiefly manual. 

No person shall be examined for the position of 
clerk who is under eighteen. Carriers must be at 
least twenty- one, and junior clerks, sixteen. Full 
information regarding these examinations, including 
blank applications, can be had at any large post office. 

Railway Mail Service. Send to the " United 
States Civil Service Commission, Washington, D.C." 
for full particulars, including sample questions, and 
dates of examinations in the several cities. 

Indian Service. The classified Indian service 
includes all the physicians, school superintendents, 
school teachers, and matrons in that service. Send to 
the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for particulars. 

SPECIMEN EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 

Note. — These questions are selected from actual papers. A 
large number of candidates are prepared annually for the Civil 
Service examinations by Boston Home College (Home-Study 
Department). 

1. Spell the following w^ords : Rarity, rarefy, silence, 
citation, inhabitant, diligent, ballot, balance, cough, 
coffee, erudition, resurrection, incapable, irresistible, 
deference, resistance, penitence, penniless, deficient, 
difference. 

2. Write a letter discussing the following subject : 
The advantages of a common-school education to a 
business or professional man. 

3. Correct these sentences : i. He has been sick this 



HOW TO SUCCEED AT CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATIONS. 

two years, but is now tolerable well. 2. No principle 
is laid down nor no rule given that apply to all possible 
cases. 3. Are not twelve month's travel in Europe 
better calculated to broaden one's ideas than any trip 
of equal length ? 

4. Express in the ordinary form : Fifty million one 
thousand and three and seven hundred and fifty 
millionths. 2. Twenty-seven pounds, twelve shillings, 
and six pence. 

5. Write in figures : XCIXLXXIV. 

6. The quotient arising from the division of 6,985.473 
by a certain number is 51, and the remainder is 68.853, 
what is the divisor ? 

7. In going i m. 94 rods, 2 yds., i ft., a carriage 
wheel makes 526 revoluiions. What is the circum- 
ference of the wheel ? 

8. On a note dated Oct. 16, 1891, for $2,650, with 
interest at 6 per cent, the following payments were 
made : Jan. 28, 1892, $575 ; May 22, 1892, $25 ; and Aug. 
4, 1892, ^948. What will be due Nov. 25, 1892 } 

10. Name in their order from east to west the 
States of the United States bordering on British 
possessions, exclusive of those separated wholly there- 
from by a lake ? 

11. In or between what States is the mouth of each 
of the following rivers : Columbia, Cumberland, 
Missouri, James, Roanoke ? 

12. In what States and on what waters are the 
following cities : P^ort Smith, Hartford, Montgomery, 
Cairo, New Haven, Bangor, Duluth, Nashville, 
Dubuque, Buffalo ? 

13. Name two important battles fought in Canada 
during the war of 181 2. Who was President during 
that war ? 

14. For what purposes may the militia be called 
forth. 

15. What are the constitutional qualifications 
requisite for eligibility to the ofiice of President of 
the United States ? 

180 





B"°KKbp 



m 



Renewed Notes. When a note is renewed the best way to 
record it is simply to make the memorandum in the bill book, 
marking out the old and entering the new. If something is paid on 
the note a journal entry may be made, or if the note has been 
discounted by us and we are obliged to take it up, a regular 
*' double entry " is necessary. 

Bills Receivable. It is well to remember that the difference 
between the two sides of this account should always equal the face 
value of the notes on hand. 

Branch Houses. The books of branch houses should be kept 
the same as though the branch were independent, excepting that 
the parent house is credited with the net investment. When clos- 
ing the books debit or credit the parent house with the net loss or 
the net gain. 

Trial Balance Errors. If the difference is in round numbers, 
as^^ioo, or $10,000, the error is likely one of addition. If the dif- 
ference is divisible by 9, the error may be caused by the transposi- 
tion of figures, as 72 for 27. If the difference is divisible by 2, the 
error may have arisen from posting an item representing just one- 
half the difference to the wrong side of the ledger. 

New Partner. The customary way, when taking in a new 
partner, is to simply take an inventory and make a statement of the 
actual present standing of the old firm, not closing the books. It is 
considered better to close the books entirely when a new partner is 
admitted. 

Change of Book-keepers. In taking a set of books from 
another book-keeper, begin by taking a trial balance to ascertain 
whether or not the books balance. They must balance before you 
can proceed. 

C. O. D. Sales. When we ship goods C. O. D., or ship them 
and draw at sight as soon as they are shipped, we charge the per- 
son to whom shipped, and credit him when the money is received 
through express company or bank. 

Statements. Better send out statements of accounts to all cus- 
tomers on the first of each month. 

Receipting Bills. The word " Paid " is as good, and much 
shorter than " Received Payment." Many business houses use a 
rubber stamp which includes the date. 

Ciphers. When an amount consisting of dollars and no cents is 
to be written in an amount column, do not write ciphers in the 
" cents " column. Better leave this column entirely blank. 

Freight. Freight, cartage, express, and all similar expenses 
should be charged to merchandise. It may be more convenient to 
do this at the end of the year by closing an account representing 
these items into the merchandise account. Duty and custom- 
house charges should be treated in the same way. 

Goods Returned. Credit the customers when the goods are 
returned. Debit a general account and at the end of the month 
close it into the merchandise account. 

Entry Clerk. The duty of an entry clerk is to record sales in 
the sales book. The bill clerk makes out bills and invoices. 

183 




Style. Paragraph and punctuate carefully. SpelL 
correctly. Write legibly and with care. Avoid blots, 
erasures, and interlineations. Never economize in 
paper by writing cross lines. In writing to the most 
intimate friend, a certain degree of attention, both to 
the subject and the style, is requisite and becoming. 
It is no more than we owe both to ourselves and to 
the friend with whom we correspond. 

P. O. Except in special instances, it is not neces- 
sary to write the letters P. O. after the name of the 
post-office. The letter, if it reaches the town, is not 
likely to go to the court-house or jail. 

Promptness. Be prompt in answering all letters, 
but be specially so in acknowledging favors and in 
business correspondence. 

Recommendation. *' It ought to be the pride of 
every man who writes a letter of recommendation to 
feel that his letter will have weight, because it is 
known that he recommends only the deserving and the 
competent, and recommends truthfully." 

Titles. It is not customary with people of good 
taste to use any title in signing letters. Rev.^ Hon , 
and Prof., are prefixed to the names of gentlemen by 
others, but never by themselves, unless they are ill- 
informed of good usage. It is courteous, in address- 
ing persons, to use their titles. The greater title pre- 
supposes the less ; therefore, in the following omit the 
"Mr." and the "A.M.": Mr, Thomas King, AM., 
LL.D. Never write " Mr. Charles Baird, Esq. Say : 
Governor and Mrs. W. E. Russell ; Hon. and Mrs. J. 
G. Thomas ; Rev. Dr. and Mrs. K. M. King : Prof 
and Mrs. F. Sanderson.'*'* 

R. S. V. P. These initials stand for respondez, s'il 
vous plait, (answer, if you please). They are some- 
times written at the lower left-hand corner of invita- 
tions. 

Official Letters. In official correspondence it is 
better to address the office than the officer, as "To the 
Secretary of the Navy, etc., Sir," instead of " To the 
Hon. B K ." 

Order Letters. In ordering goods or any articles 
state explicitly the amount, kind, etc., and on what 

184 



HANDY HELPS FOR CORRESPONDING CLERKS- 

terms wanted. Always state in your letter the amoant 
of money you send and how you send it. 

Paging. If the letter consists of more than one 
sheet, the sheets should be arranged in order and 
paged carefully. 

Paper. For social correspondence, four-page note 
size is preferable. Business men generally use single 
sheets letter size, with printed business headings. The 
paper should be, whether letter or note size, the best 
that the writer can afford. Let it be white, or with the 
faintest tinge possible of blue or cream. Unruled 
paper is to be preferred. The names of the various 
kinds of paper in general use are Legalcap, Bill-pape7% 
Fool capy Letter-paper y Commercial- note ^ Note-paper ^zxi^ 
Billet, 

Invitations. Invitations are usually written in the 
third person. They are usually short, and occupy the 
middle portion of a double sheet of note or invitation 
paper. The words " present their compHments '' are 
now usually discarded from notes of ceremony. 

Initials. Many persons, in subscribing their name, 
hav'e a fancy for giving only the initials of their first, or 
given name; thus, R. Brown, J. T. King. No one can 
determine from these signatures whether the writer is 
Reuben or Rebecca, James or Juliet, and the person 
addressed, who is often a stranger, is at a loss whether 
to send his reply to Mr. Brown or Miss Brown, Mr. 
King or Miss King. This is especially the case if the 
penmanship has the appearance of a lady's hand. 

Introduction. Letters of Introduction are used to 
introduce one friend to another who resides at some 
distance. Do not give a letter of introduction to any 
one with whom you are not thoroughly acquainted. 
Such letters are generally left unsealed, and the name 
of the person introduced should be written on the 
lower left-hand corner of the envelope, in order that 
the persons, on meeting, may greet each other without 
embarrassment. 

Junior. The abbreviation of the word is *' Jr." or 
"Jun." Its place is immediately after the name, as 
"' William Brown, Jr., Esq." It never takes the place 
of any title. The same rule applies to Senior. Both 
words should begin with capitals. 

Date. The date consists of the month, the day of 
the month, and the year. It is not necessary to write 

185 



HANDY HELPS FOR CORRESPONDING CLERKS. 

the forms ist, 7th, 23d, etc.; the figures are sufficient. 
Note that the proper contractions of the ordinals end- 
ing in 2 and 3 are 2d, 3d, 22d, 23d. 

Degrees. Scholastic degrees — M.D., D.D., 
M.A., A.B.J etc., — are always abbreviated in ad- 
dresses. Titular addresses of high rank, however, 
such as President, Governor, Archbishop, etc., should 
never be abbreviated in such use. It is not in good 
taste to address a man as ''Mr. Charles King, M.A.," 
or " Charles King-, Esq., M.D." Titles are multiplied 
on title-pages and catalogues, but not more than one 
should appear on letters. 

Folding. A letter-sheet should be folded from the 
bottom forward, bringing the lower edge near to the 
top, so as to make the half-length a little shorter than 
the envelope, and then break the fold. Next fold 
twice the other way, beginning at the left edge, folding 
towards the right. Measure these folds also, so as to 
fit the envelope. A note-sheet should be folded 
twice, from the bottom forward. When the envelope 
used is nearly square, a single fold of the note-sheet is 
sufficient. 

Abbreviations. Avoid abbreviations, such as 
"&" for "and," "X Roads" for "Cross Roads," 
" Bait." for " Baltimore," " Phil." for " Philadelphia,'' 
** C'wood " for " CoUingwood," " Wms'town " for 
" Williamstown," " Jns'town " for " Johnstown," ** ad." 
or " adv." for " advertisement," etc. 

Address. Write your name and address plainly 
and in full. What you intended for " N.Y." may look 
to the corresponding clerk who reads your letter like 
*' N.J." Contractions of names should be made dis- 
tinct. 

Business letters should be clear, brief, direct, and 
gentlemanly. Everything irrelevant to the business 
in hand should be excluded. If necessary, reference 
should be made to former correspondence. Every 
business man should keep an exact copy of all business 
letters which he despatches, and file all business let- 
ters which he receivjss. 

Carelessness in spelling, blunders in construction, 
or want of taste in the expression of thought, often 
interfere with success in the business world. The 
business character of a man is judged of by strangers 
from his correspondence. 

186 




Note. — George Can^ Eggleston in a little book on " How to 
Make a Living " gives some excellent advice to young people on 
the subject of choosing an occupation. 

The choice of a business determines the life of a 
man. It limits him on every hand, moulding him 
physically, intellectually, and even morally. It deter- 
mines how much and what kind of work he shall do, 
how much leisure he shall have, what his associations 
are to be, and in many other ways affects his daily life 
to its end, and shapes his character far more certainly 
than his previous education has done. To choose 
v>'isely is to avoid more than half the errors which 
embitter human life. 

The first point to be considered in the choice of a 
business, is your ability to earn a proper livelihood in 
its pursuit The laborer is worthy of his hire. The 
world does not owe you a living, but you owe it to the 
world to earn a living for yourself. The world is 
entitled to your best work, and in choosing a life busi- 
ness you should choose the one in following which you 
are likely to do your best work. No man has a right 
to spoil a good blacksmith or carpenter for the sake of 
making a poor physician, or clergyman, or attorney. 
There is a joy in doing the thing for which we are fit- 
ted, that no man can know whose work is less truly in 
harmony with his nature. 

The market ]s always overstocked with mid- 
dling work of all sorts, while first-class work in every 
department of human effort, is always so scarce as to 
command high prices. Every employer knows that 
whea he has need of a man capable of really first-class 
work, he must search diligently for him, and pay him a 
high price when he is found. 

A large jjercentage of life's failures are due to peo- 
ple's persistent attempts to do things for which they 
are not fitted. A blunder of this kind at the outset is 
almost sure to embarrass one through life. The 
trouble comes mostly from a mistaken notion of 
respectability. One kind of labor is as respectable as 
another if it is honest labor and the world demands it. 
However, there is genuine dignity and honor in the 
pursuit of callings requiring intellectual strength and 
culture or technical knowledge and skill. 

There is a prevalent belief among men that there are 

187 



HOW TO GET A STARF. 



more and better chances for advancement in the 
professions and in commerce than in mechanical pur- 
suits. Young people ponder the stories of men who, 
beginning as office boys, have become chief clerks, 
junior partners, and ultimately seniors in great houses, 
until these come to represent, in their eyes, the ordi- 
nary and probable course of affairs. They forget that 
success of this kind can come to but one man in two 
or three thousands, and that when it does come it is 
the result of something more than mere chance. To a 
young man with capital in reserve, or with its equiva- 
lent in influence, or, better still, with extraordinary 
capacity, a clerkship may offer a reasonable prospect 
of ultimate advancement, but without one or another 
of these conditions, the chances are more than a thou- 
sand to one that he will never succeed in making more 
than a bare support for himself, while the overcrowded 
condition of the ranks in which he stands makes his 
position a precarious one always. The mechanic, 
on the other hand, brings a definite skill to bear upon 
the problem of money making. Only those who are 
similarly skilled can compete with him for employ- 
ment. His skill is a positive capital, and his work is 
always productive. 

The era of easy money getting is rapidly passing 
away. In trained ability is there only any real safety 
from want. No man who is without a thorough 
knowledge of some business is ever safe. The work of 
developing our country's resources is only fairly begun» 
but it is so well begun that only skilled labor is wanted 
in its further accomplishment. The indifference with 
which young men habitually allow themselves to drift 
listlessly into avocations for which they are by nature 
unfit; the confidence with which they trust chance to 
do for them that which they should do for, themselves ; 
and the blind recklessness with which they neglect to 
acquire a skill that may serve them in their life strug- 
gle, is very much to be regretted. 

Don't wait until you get something to fit you. 
Better get at something which doesn't fit, than to be 
idle. But all the while study your bent. Go-at-it-ive- 
ness is the first condition, and stick-to-it-iveness the 
second. 

There are Christian conditions of success 
which all should consider. The merchant who is hon- 
est that he may make money is not honest and may 
fail. He only is Christian who counts honesty of more 
worth than money or fame. No matter what your 
calling, be truly true and faithfully faithful, and if you 
fail in the *' hundred-fold now, in this time, " it will bQ 
abundantly made good in the "life everlasting,'- 




Prices 0/ GOODS 



MOST APPROVED METHOD. 

There is is a wide diversity in the methods 
adopted by merchants for marking the cost and selling 
prices of goods. Some merchants are careless and 
inaccurate, and others fail in having as good a system 
as might with advantage be followed. It is obvious 
that the marks should be as simple and complete as 
possible, while at the same time they should be of 
such a character as not to tell too much to the inquisi- 
tive customer. Suppose we take for a key word : 

CUMBERLAND K 

1234567890 Repeater. 



2^f- 



using K for a repeater, so that to express in letters $1.50 

we have CED, 
or ^3.00 we have 
MDK. Now, as 
a first example, 
suppose a piece of 
goods cost 70 cents 
and I want to sell 
it at $1.25, the 
freight and other 
expenses being 10 
cents : In marking 
the goods I should 
in the left-hand cor- 
ner of the box put 
the New York cost, 
70 cents, or LD, 
with a circle around it. Now, I want to sell it at 
$1.25. Near the middle of the box I should mark it 
$4. 1/5. This would show that 45 cents was the 
profit, and this is the way the mark would appear as in 
the first illustration. This LD with a circle around it 
represents the New York cost, 70 cents, the Cue the 
selling price, ^1.25, and $4 1/5 the profit, or 45 
cents. Take a second example. Suppose an article 
cost 40 cents, the freight was 17 cents, and we desire to 
sell it at 75 cents, the mark would appear as in the 
second illustration. If an article cost $2 and I want 
to sell it at $3 and the freight was 27 cents, I should 
mark it as in the third illustration. 




190 



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PRAVVING >^^^^J)ES KiHfNG 



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MATERIAL. 

Before beginning a course in mechanical drawing 
the student should have a good general knowledge of 
the elements of geometry. The instruments used 
need not be numerous, but should be of the best make 
and finish which the student can obtain. The follow- 
ing are absolutely essential : — 

1. A Drawing-board with a perfectly level sur- 
face, and with its corners true right angles. Half- 
imperial is a very convenient size. 

2. A T square. — This is used to draw lines par- 
allel to the edge of the board. It is not advisable to 
use it for the purpose of drawing vertical as well as 
horizontal lines, as, if the board be not true, inaccur- 
acies will be caused in the drawing. The vertical lines 
are best obtained by using the set square. It is 
advantageous to have the edge of the T square bound 
with hard wood and bevelled. The blade should be 
screwed on to the head, as this arrangement allows 
the set squares to be used more freely. 

3. Two set squares, having angles of 45° and 
60° respectively. These are used to obtain perpen- 
diculars and parallels. Skilful manipulation of these 
useful instruments will enable the student to construct 
many simple figures by their aid alone, 

4. Pencils. — These should be HH for the con- 
struction lines, and H for darkening the lines of the 
constructed figure. They are best sharpened like the 
edge of a chisel for geometrical drawing, as the point 
lasts longer. 

5. Mathematical instruments. — These should 
include: A compass with movable pen and pencil 
legs (those with needle points are preferable, as they 
do not make so large a hole in the paper) ; a pair of 

192 



MECHANICAL DRAWING AND DESIGNING. 

dividers, for measuring ; a mathematical pen, for 

ruling lines in ink. In addition to these, a set of 
spring bow compasses, for describing small arcs and 
circles^ are of great assistance. Indian ink must 
always be used with the instruments, as it does not 
corrode them ,• that sold in a liquid form is very con- 
venient. After the pens have been used they should 
be carefully wiped, to prevent rust. 

6. Paper. — For ordinary pencil- work cartridge- 
paper is the most suitable ; when the drawings have to 
be inked in, a better quality is desirable. 

DEFINITIONS. 

A line has length and positiojt, but neither breadth 
nor thickness. Various methods of drawing lines are 
used in practice, as thick, thin, dotted, and chain lines. 

A horizontal line is perfectly level, like the sur- 
face of still water. 

A vertical line is perfectly upright, like a plumb- 
line. 

An oblique line is neither horizontal nor vertical. 

Parallel lines are the same distance apart, and 
cannot meet, however far they may be produced. 

An angle is the inclination of two straight lines to 
each other, which meet together. 

A right angle. — When two straight lines meet 
each other so that the adjacent angles are equal to 
each other, each of these angles is a right angle, and 
the lines are perpendicular to each other. 

An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle. 

An acute angle is less than a right angle. 

The vertex is the point where the two lines form- 
ing an angle meet. 

Adjacent angles have a common vertex and one 
common arm. 

194 












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MECHANICAL DRAWING AND DESIGNING. 

The complement of an angle is the difference 
between it and a right angle. 

The supplement of an angle is the difference 
between it and two right angles. 

Polygons are named according to the mumber of 
their sides : — 

A pentagon has five sides. A nonagon has nine sides. 

A hexagon has six sides. A decagon has ten sides. 

A heptagon has seven sides. An undecagon has eleven sides 

An octagon has eight sides. A duodecagon has twelve sides 

A circle is a plane figure contained by one line, 
called the circumference. Every part of the cir- 
cumference is equally distant from a point within the 
circle, which is called the centre. 

The diameter of a circle is the straight line pass- 
ing through its centre, and terminated at both ends by 
the circumference. It divides the circles into two 
semicircles. If two diameters be drawn at right 
angles to each other, the circle is divided into quad- 
rants. 

The radius of a circle is the distance from the 
centre to the circumference. 

An arc of a circle is the portion between any two 
points in the circumference. 

A chord is the straight line joining the ends of an 
arc. 

A segment is the part of a circle bounded by an 
arc and its chord. 

A sector is the part of a circle contained by two 
radii and the arc between them. 

A tangent is a straight line which touches a circle, 
but does not cut it when produced. 

Concentric circles have the same centre but dif- 
ferent radii. 

A triangle is a a figure contained by three straight 
lines. If it be supposed to stand upon one of its sides, 
196 



MECHANICAL DRAWING AND DESIGNING. 

that side is termed its base ; the point where the . 
other two sides meet is its vertex or apex, the angle 
at the vertex is the vertical angle, and the perpen- 
dicular from the apex to the base or base produced is 
the altitude . 

Triangles are named either from the comparative 
lengths of their sides, or from the magnitudes of their 
angles. 

1st. With 7^efereitce to their sides there are three 
ki7ids : — 

An equalateral triangle has three equal sides. 
An isosceles triangle has two of its sides equal. 
A scalene triangle has three unequal sides. 

2d. With reference to the angles there are also 
three kinds : — 

A right-angled triangle has one of its angles a right angle. 
The side opposite to the right angle is called the hypothenuse. 
An obtuse-angled triangle has one of its angles obtuse. 
An acute-angled triangle has three acute angles. 

A quadrilateral figure is bounded by four straight 
lines. It is also termed a quadrangle, from having 
four angles. 

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral figure in which 
the opposite sides are parallel. The straight line join- 
ing the opposite angles of the parallelogram is called 
the diagonal. 

A square has all its sides equal and all its angles 
right angles. 

A rectangle or oblong has its opposite sides 
equal and all its angles right angles. 

A rhombus has all its sides equal, but its angles 
are not right angles. 

A rhomboid has its opposite sides equal, but its 
angles are not right angles. 

A trapezoid has only two sides parallel. 

A trapezium has none of its sides parallel, but 
may have two of its sides equal. 




Note. — One of the best teachers of writing in the United States 
has prepared a course of home-lessons in penmanship which we 
unhesitatingly recommend to readers of this book. The work con- 
sists of a book of instruction and one hundred sheets of practice 
copies put up in a very attractive form. It is superior in every 
way to the old-style penmanship compendiums which have been 
so largely advertised. A set of these lessons can be secured, for 
one dollar, from Seymour Eaton, 42 Hollis St., Newton, 
Mass. 

Material. Use good black ink and a moderately fine pen. 
Ordinary foolscap paper, having a moderately smooth surface, will 
do for practice. 

Neatness. A very important part of the training of a good 
penman is the cultivation of a habit of neatness. It is certainly 
true that a lack of neatness is one of the principal causes of poor 
writing. 

Position. It is very important that the hand should be accus- 
tomed to a correct position. The wrist should be nearly flat, thus 
bringing the penholder over to the left, so that it points about over 
the right shoulder. Let no part of the hand or wrist touch the 
paper except the third and fourth fingers, and these as nearly as 
possible on the finger nails. The penholder should be held about 
at the knuckle. The first and second fingers and thumb should be 
bent somewhat as the pen is held. The writer should sit facing 
the desk and should keep the head on a line with the body and not 
turned to right or left. The body should be nearly erect, but 
leaning slightly toward the desk and steadied by the left arm. 
The right arm should be kept so that the elbow is about at the edge 
of the desk. 

Practice. Ordinary writing is done with the arm, hand and 
fingers, with the arm as the central, propelling force. The arm 
should always rest its full weight on the desk and should move on 
the muscular portion below the elbow as a kind of pivot but with- 
out sliding the sleeve. Poor writing is, as a rule, finger writing 
and a large part of the process of learning to write well is usually 
a training or discipline of the arm. No one can become a really 
good writer without learning to use the arm movement. Many 
fail here because as the result obtained at the start is not so good 
as that reached in the old way, the practice is given up. Movement 
exercises are for training or discipline, and this can only be reached 
by aiming at, or striving for a definite result. Reckless movement 
practice is worse than useless as it leads to carelessness in all 
writing. The right way must be faithfully followed until it becomes 
a habit. Training and discipline of the arm can only be had by 
using the arm, " Learning to write is a double process — the 
training of the muscles and the training of the eye — and neglect 
of either will result in failure. 

199 




Telegraph/ 



Use. The electric telegraph is used to transmit 
messages by means of a recognized system of signals, 
from one place to another at a considerable distance 
apart. 

Requisites. To transmit the message it is neces- 
sary to have 

( I ) battei'ies to generate the currents ; 

(2) circuits^ or lines of wires connecting the two 
places ; 

(4) i7ist7'ii7]ients for sending and receiving the signals. 
In single needle instruments, these consist of 

(a) <a: commutator, for sending the signals from one 
place ; 

{h) a dial, for receiving them at the other place. 

Batteries. Daniell's battery is the one generally 
used. It consists of a teak trough which is divided 
into ten cells, separated from each other by slate 
partitions and coated throughout with marine glue. 
Each cell is divided by a porous partition into two 
parts. A zinc plate is connected by means of a copper 
strip with a copper plate, which passes over the top of 
the slate partition. The part of the cell containing the 
zinc is nearly filled up with water, and that containing 
the copper is partly filled with crystals of copper 
sulphate, upon which water is then poured to the same 
height. Pure water only is added in practice, because 
zinc sulphate is formed spontaneously in the cell if it 
be allowed to stand for about two days before use. 

Circuits. Some years ago two lines were em- 
ployed, one being used for the current to pass to the 
receiving station, and the other for the current to 
return to the battery. One wire only is used at the 
present time, each end of which is in metallic connec- 
tion with a plate sunk to some depth in the ground. 



TELEGRAPHY. 



The earth acts in a manner -similar to the old return 
wire. It is unnecessary to consider that the same 
current returns to the battery, the earth merely dis- 
sipating the charge owing to the fact that it is at a 
lower potential than the place from whence the current 
starts. 

Overhead wires are made of galvanized iron to 
prevent them from rusting, and are insulated by means 
of porcelain insulators, which are attached to poles 
or buildings. 

Underground wires in towns are made of gutta- 
percha-covered wires placed in iron pipes. 

Submarine cables in which great strength is 
necessary vary somewhat in construction, although the 
principle involved in each is the same. They usually 
consist of a co7'e of seven copper wires, insulated by 
being covered with layers of gutta-percha. This is 
then covered with hemp, which in turn has a coiled 
sheath of steel wire placed round it. 

The galvanometer consists essentially of a coil of 
fine silk-covered copper wire, in which is placed a 
vertical magnetic needle capable of deflection to the 
right or left according as a current is sent in one 
direction or the other round the coil. The magnetic 
needle is connected with a steel indicator placed in 
front of the dial. One terminal of the coil is in 
connection with the line, and the other in connection 
with the commutator to " earth." 

The Dial. The two small circles on the face of 
the dial represent two stops (about oiie inch apart), 
which are placed in these positions to prevent the 
indicator, and the needle with which it is connected, 
being deflected too widely. The face of the dial has 
usually the code of signals printed upon it. 

The commutator or current-reverser has two 
forms: — (i) The drop-handle^ which, when hanging 
vertically breaks connection with the battery, but 



TELEGRAPHY. 



when moved to the right or left deflects the needle 
in those directions. (2) The tapper ox pedal. 

The Morse instrument is the one most used at 
the present time. It consists of (i) the receiver, and 
( 2 ) the transmitter. 

The Receiver. The essential part of the instru- 
ment consists of an electro-magnet, which, when a 
current passes round the coil, attracts an armature 
connected with a lever. It may be arranged as a 
sounder, in which case the person who is receiving the 
message notices the duration of the clicks. It may 
also take the form of an embosser, to print the signals 
upon a strip of paper moved by clockwork through the 
instrument. Receivers have been invented which print 
the messages in ordinary type-characters. These are 
being generally used in large offices. 

The Transmitter consists of a brass lever movable 
about a horizontal axis. On pressing the knob the 
lever comes in contact with the button, connected with 
the positive pole of the battery, so that a current 
passes through the wire, the lever, and the line wire, to 
the distant station, the duration of which depends upon 
the time the lever is in contact, thus producing either a 
dot or a dash. When the pressure is removed a spring 
lifts the lever, until it touches a button at the other end 
and in connection wdth the wire (leading either to the 
indicator or to a relay). 

The Relay. When a current has passed over a 
long distance its strength has fallen off considerably. 
It becomes necessary to introduce some contrivance 
which will give assistance by means of a local current. 
For this purpose a reiay is introduced. This consists 
of a delicate electro-magnet, having a coil of very fine 
wire. When the weakened current passes round the 
coil, the electro- magnet attracts an armature, which 
closes a local circuit, in which a battery and receiver 
are included. Thus the w^eak line current brings into 
action a strong local current, wiiich performs the 
necessary work. 

203 




5CIE(f(£ 




Nature's Laws. Nothing in nature is permanent ; 
everything is constantly changing. Precisely the same 
effects are produced by the same causes. The invari- 
able relations between causes and resulting effects con- 
stitute the laws of nature. 

Molecules. All matter is conceived to be built up 
of minute particles, called molecules. Some idea of 
the extreme smallness of a molecule may be gathered 
from the estimate that if a drop of water were magni- 
fied to the size of the earth, its molecules, so magni- 
fied would be about as large as base-balls. 

Inertia. All matter resists being set in motion, 
and, when moving, resists any change in the rate or 
direction of its motion. A ball thrown into the air, 
were it not for the attraction of gravity would go on 
forever. 

Natural Forces, There are three great natural 
forces by whose varying action substances are gath- 
ered and held together. These forces are ^r^z///«//<?^, 
cohesion, and chemical affinity. 

Gravitation. By virtue of this force, each mole- 
cule of matter tends to attract, or pull toward itself, 
every other molecule, however distant. The earth is 
so enormous that it attracts all the detached bodies 
near its surface. This attraction is commonly called 
weight. The heavenly bodies attract each other. The 
attraction or lifting power of the sun and moon cause 
the tides. The intensity of gravitation varies inversely 
as the square of the distance between the bodies. 

Cohesion, like gravitation, is an attractive force 
which may act on every molecule in nature. It acts 
only between individual molecules of the same kind of 
matter. It is this force which gathers molecules 
together in the form of solids and liquids. 

Chemical Affinity. Cohesion increases the mass 
of a substance by adding together many minute parti- 
cles of the same substance ; affinity produces a new 
substance by combining still more minute particles of 



SCIENCE LESSONS. 



totally dissimilar substance. Air is composed of oxy- 
gen and nitrogen. Water is composed of oxygen and 
hydrogen. 

Elements. An element is a substance which con- 
sists wholly of one kind of matter. There are about 
seventy known elements. Of these 55 are called met- 
als, such as calcium^ iron, copper, gold, etc. The re- 
maining elements are called metalloids. Some are 
solids at ordinary temperatures, such as silicon, carbon, 
phosphorus, sulphur, etc. One is a liquid, — bromine. 
Others are gases, such as oxygen, hydrogen and 
7titrogen. 

Compounds. Elements unite to form compounds, 
as air, water, quartz, limestone, etc. 

Oxygen. This is by far the most abundant ele- 
ment on the earth. At ordinary temperature it is a 
gas — colorless, tasteless, and odorless. It is essen- 
tial to all life, both animal and vegetable. It forms \ 
by weight of all rocks, f by weight of all water, i by 
weight of all air, -| by weight of all vegetable matter, 
and I by weight of all animal matter. 

Energy. The quantity of work a body in motion is 
capable of doing, — or the amount of kinetic energy it 
possesses, — depends more upon the rapidity of its 
motion than upon its mass; for while doubling the 
mass only doubles the energy, doubling the speed in- 
creases the energy four times ; thus, energy increases 
with the mass of a body, but with the square of its velocity. 
That is, a hundred-pound cannon-ball, moving with a 
certain speed, possesses no more energy than a one- 
pound ball moving ten times as fast. 

Heat and Light are the results of a certain kind of 
insensible motion of the molecules of matter. A body 
is said to be hot when its molecules possess an exceed- 
ingly rapid, but, of course, invisible, vibratory motion. 
When this motion increases to a certain rapidity, the 
body, becomes luminous, and is said to be red hot. 
The molecules are never supposed to be at rest. Un- 
equally heated bodies, whether touching each other or 
not always tend to acquire a uniform temperature, the 
hotter becoming cooler, and the cooler becoming hot- 
ter. Heat is said to pass from one body to another in 
rays. Some of the rays emitted by a very hot body 
are perceptible to the nerves of the eye as light. Radi- 
ant energy travels through ether at the enormous 
speed of 186,000 miles a second, the heat and light of 
the sun requiring about eight minutes to reach the 
earth. 

205 



SCIENCE LESSONS. 



Expansion and Contraction. When a body 
grows hotter or colder, a change in its size always takes 
place. As a general rule bodies expand when heated, 
and contract when cooled. The power with which 
substances expand or contract is practically resistless. 
A change of temperature of io° in a mass of air one 
mile square tends to change its length, breadth, and 
thickness by about thirty-six feet. 

Freezing pf "Water. — Water, iron, and some 
other substances, occupy a greater space in the solid 
than in the liquid state, and hence do not expand and 
contract according to the general rule when near their 
meltiiig points. If fresh water, for instance, be cooled, 
it contracts regularly, till it reaches a temperature of 
39°, after which it slowly expands as it cools, until, in 
freezing, it makes a sudden and great expansion — 
twelve cubic inches of water making about thirteen 
cubic inches of ice. Ice is consequently lighter than an 
equal bulk of water, and hence floats. If the ice thus 
formed be further cooled, it will be found to contract 
regularly. Hence, it is only during the change from 
the liquid into the solid state that the general rule of 
expansion and contraction is reversed. This property 
of water is of great importance. Lakes and rivers 
cool in winter by radiating and conducting heat to the 
colder air. As the surface water cools and contracts, 
it sinks, and is replaced by warmer water from beneath, 
which in turn cools and sinks, until the whole depth of 
the water is reduced to 39°. Should this process con- 
tinue until ice was formed, the ice, too would sink, and 
accumulate at the bottom until the lakes and streams 
were converted into solid blocks of ice, which the heat 
of the succeeding summer could not melt. But, after 
reaching 39°, the water expands by cooling until after 
ice is formed. Hence, the ice-cold surface water and 
the ice are lighter than the deeper water, and form a 
floating blanket, which prevents to a great extent the 
escape of heat from the slightly warmer water beneath, 
and so preserves it in a liquid state through the winter. 

Velocity of Falling Bodies. When a body is 
allowed to fall freely from a state of rest it is found 
that its velocity increases regularly every second. 
During the first second it passes through 16 feet, and 
at the end of the first second it is traveling at the rate 
of 32 feet per second. During the second second it 
falls 48 feet, and the end of the second is traveling 
64 feet per second. To find the space through which 
a body will fall in a given time, square the number of 
seconds and multiply by 16. To find the velocity in 
feet multiply the time in seconds by 32. 

206 



/Money in ... ... 

' ^ INVENTIONS 



HowtoGetOutaPATENT 



"The measure of impossibilities is lost in the pres- 
ent age." Only by knowledge of Nature's laws 
can man subjugate her powers and appropriate her 
materials for his own purposes. Such knowledge has 
lengthened life, mitigated pain, given new securities to 
the traveller, spanned great rivers, tunnelled mountains, 
lighted up the night with noon-day brightness, ex- 
tended the range of vision, accelerated motion, and 
annihilated distance. A point which yesterday was 
invisible is its goal to-day, and will be its starting point 
to-morrow. Thus every new invention, every triumph 
of engineering skill, is the embodiment of some scien- 
tific idea. Machinery, actuated by the forces of 
nature, now performs with ease and certainty work that 
was formerly the drudgery of thousandso Every 
natural agent has been p essed into man's service. 

But so much have these things become in the pres- 
ent day matters of course, that it is difficult for one 
who has not witnessed the revolution produced by such 
applications of science to realize their full importance. 
Let the young reader who wishes to understand why 
the present epoch is worthy of admiration, address 
himself to some intelligent person old enough to re- 
member the century in its 'teens ; let him inquire what 
wonderful changes in the aspect of things have been 
comprised in the experience of a single lifetime, and 
let him ask what has brought about these changes. 
He will be told of the railway, the steamship, the tele- 
graph, the printing-press, the sewing machine, the tele- 
phone, and a hundred and one other wonderful inven- 
tions ; he may hear of a chemistry which from dirt and 
dross extracts fragrant essences and dyes of resplen- 
dent hue ; he may hear something of a wonderful instru- 
ment which can. make a faint beam of light, reaching us 
after a journey of a hundred years, unfold its tale and 
reveal the secrets of the stars. 

The rush of inventors to the patent office, and the 
perhaps larger number who have invented something 
and not got so far as the patent office, proves how 
copious is the store of inventive capacity among us. 
Imrnense fortunes have been made out of apparently 
trifling inventions — such as a shoe-fastener, a hook- 
and-eye, a machine for making square-bottomed paper 
bags, a window fastener, a monkey-wrench, a lamp- 
burner, and hundreds of other things just as simple. 
207 



INVENTIONS. 



The consideration of these inventions brings very forci- 
bly home to the mind how simple are some of those 
methods which nobody seems to have thought of be- 
fore, and yet which everyone finds so obvious and 
natural when they are once explained. The youth who 
imagines that invention is simple luck, a sudden happy 
thought, may as well dismiss the idea at once. 
Certainly some great thoughts appear to come sud- 
denly and illumine all at once questions previously 
dark, but this is the exception. It is almost invariably 
found that the inventor has long been thinking upon 
the question leading to the invention, and, perhaps, 
has made many unsuccessful attempts to solve the 
problem. 

How to Get out a Patent. 

Patents are granted in the United States for a period of seven- 
teen years. The inventor or discoverer must make a written 
application addressed to the commissioner of patents, and file 
in the patent-office a written description of his invention or dis- 
covery, giving details of its various parts, the materials used, how 
constructed or compounded, the manner of operating it, and the re- 
sults proposed to be accomplished by its use. The specifications 
must be signed by the inventor and be attested to by two wit- 
nesses. When the character of the application requires drawings 
of machinery, or parts thereof, the applicant must furnish one 
copy of each drawing for filing in the patent office, and another to 
attach to the specifications. If the article to be patented is com- 
pounded of several ingredients, specimens of the materials used, 
and of the whole composition must be forwarded with the applica- 
tion. When a machine for which a patent is asked can be illus- 
trated by a working model, the commissioner may require the 
applicant to furnish such model. All patented articles must be 
marked "patented" before being sold. It is a punishable offence 
to put this word upon any article which has not been patented. 
For circulars giving full information on all points, address the 
Commissioner of Patents, Washington, D.C. 

Trade Marks. 

A trade mark is an arbitrary sign, name or symbol, by which a 
manufacturer marks his goods, and by which they are known in 
the market as his. Trade marks may be registered by the commis- 
sioner of patents, giving the person or firm exclusive right to use 
them. The term is thirty years, and may be renewed for a second 
thirty. No one may use the patented trade-mark of anolher on a 
similar class of goods, neither can he use anything so closely re- 
sembling the trade-mark as to deceive customers. The same mark 
may be used for another class of goods without infringement. The 
fee is twenty-five dollars. 

To Obtain a Copyright. 

So obtain a copyright the applicant must, on or before the day 
of publication in this or any foreign country, deliver at the office pf 
the Librarian of Congress at Washington, or deposit in the mail, 
addressed to the Librarian of Congress, a printed copy of the title 
of the book, etc., for which he desires a copyright. He must also 
immediately after publication, forward two copies of the book, 
etc., printed from tyue set within the United States, or from plates 
made therefrom. The fee is one dollar. Copyrights remain in 
force for twenty-eight years, and may be renewed for fourteen 
years. Write to the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D.C, for 
further particulars and for application forms. 

208 













f i:;;-^f ^-v^^coHMtRstcnou 



In this department we give the French of a few very common 
words and expressions. We have spelled the French words as 
they are pronounced and not as they appear when printed. 

1. If you please — See voo play. 

2. Yes, sir — Wee Mo s seen. No — Nong. 

3. I thank you — Jeh voo reminairsee. 

4. Do you speak French t — Parlai-voo fraunsait 

5. I do not understand — Jeh neh coinprong pah, 

6. Give me. Bread. Coffee. 
Donnai mwa. pang. dit caffay. 

7. Good morning. Very well. 
Bo7igjoo7\ Tray beeang. 

8. How do you do ? — Co7?tf?iong voo portaivoo. 

9. Goodbye — O playzeer. Goodnight — Bo7t 7iwee, 

10. I think so — Je crwa queh wee. Not — no7ig. 

11. I am very glad of it — Jo7ig swee fort aze, 

12. Don't answer — Neh raipleekai pah. 

13. How old are you ? — Kel ahje aval voo ? 

14. What do you say t — Keh deet voo ? 

15. Do you understand me } — Meh Compremay voo ? 

16. Come here — Approshai. Listen — Aicootai. 

17. What do you mean } — Keh voolai-voo deer ? 

18. Do you know Mr. H. } 
Connaissai voo in os seen H ? 

19. What o'clock is it ? — Kel eur ait-eel ? 

20. Make haste — IVeh swoyai pah lo7tgto7ig. 

21. Not very well — Pah tray beeang. • 

22. Is breakfast ready ? — Leh daijeitnay ait eel pray ? 

23. That is enough — sla ait assay. 

24. Give me the salt — Do7t7iay mwa leh sel. 

25. Pass me the butter — Passay mwa leh beur. 

26. Not to-day — Paz vjoordwee. 

27. We shall dine at six — Noo dee7tero7igs ah seece. 

28. Help yourself — sairvai voo. 

29. Potatoes — Dayz pom deh tare. 

30. I am hungry ^r- f ay fang. 

2og 



LESSONS IN FRENCH CONVERSATION. 



31. I am very thirsty — J' ay beeaitg soitaf. 

32. They are waiting for you — Ong vooz attong. 
-T^-T^. Ring, if you please — sonitay^ see voo play. 

34. Are you tired ? — Ait voo fateegay ? 

35. Is my room ready ? — Ma shawmbr ait-el prate ? 

36. Good night — Bong swahr. 

yj. Where shall we go ? — Par o eeroitg noo ? 

38. I know him — Jeh leh connay. 

39. Market. Street. Square. 
Mar shay. Rti. Pi ass. 

40. I am very warm — J\-iy beeang sho. 

41. Do you think it will rain ? 
Crwoiyai-voo keel pleicv'i 

42. Light the fire — Allii7nay leh feu. 

43. Put some coals on — Mettay du sharbong. 

44. I want some paper — Eel mehfo du papyai. 

45. Post this letter — Poriay set lettr ah lah post. 

46. Come with me — Ve7inaze avec uiwa. 

47. What are you doing ? — Keh 'fate voo ? 

48. I am sick — fay mal o kur. 

49. Everything is ready — Toot ai pray. 

50. There is no room — Eel nee ah pah deh plass. 

51. Give me your hand — Donnay mwa lah mang. 

52. How much is it ? — Ah combeeang slah tnongt eel? 

53. Do we stop here ? — Noo^ ee arrayterong noo} 

54. Five minutes — sang meenute. 

55. Here it is — Leh vwoysee. 

56. Is your name on it ? — Voire nong ait eel dessu ? 

57. Not that I know of — Pah kehjeh sash, 

58. Which is the best hotel ? 
Kel ai leh melyure hotel ? 

59. Have you made out our bill.'* 
Av ay -voo fay notr coitgt} 



60. 


Never mind - 


— Namport. 






61. 


Will you have some ? — Ong voolay voo ? 


62. 


The French numerals 


are 


as follows : 




I. ung 


8. wheel 




15. kangz 




2. deuh 


9. 7teuf 




16. sayz 




3. troiah 


10. deeee 




17. deece-set 




4. kahtr 


II. ongz 




18. deeze-wheet 




5. sahnk 


12. dooze 




19. deez-neujf 




6. seece 


13. trayz 




20. vahng 




'J, set 


14. katorz 











In this department we give the German of a few very cominon 
words and expressions. The German words are spelled as they 
are pronounced and not as they appear when printed. 

1. Yes — Vci/i. No — A^ine. 

2. If you please — Geeyittigst. 

3. Sir — iWhie Jiei-r. Miss — Mine froyline. 

4. Do you speak German ? — Sprecheji zee doytsh. 

5. Do you understand .^ — Feriayen zee. 

6. Good morning — Gooien morgen. 

7. How do you do .^ — Vee gaytes. 

8. Very well — Zare vole. 

9. Give me some water — Gay ben zee vieer vasser. 

10. Good bye — Lay ben zee vole. 

11. Good night — Gooten nacJit. 

12. No, thank you — N'lne^ ich dankay eenen. 

13. How old are you ? — Vee alt zind zee ? 

14. What do you say ? — Vas zaagen zee ? 

1 5. What is it good for ? — Vo.'soo ist es goot ? 

16. What o'clock is it .^ — Vas ist dee cor ? 

1 7. Are you hungry ? — Zind zee hoongrig ? 

18. Are you tired? — Zind zee meeynday? 

19. Where shall we go .^ — Vo vollen veer hingayen ? 

20. Everything is ready — Alles istfaretig. 

21. I want a ticket for — Ich veennspay ine bill yet nach. 

22. Do we stop here t — Halten veer heer an ? 

23. Which is the best hotel } 
Vetches ist das be stay hotel ? 

24. Are our rooms ready } 
Zind oonzere tsinimer fartig ? 



25 


. The G 


ermai 


1 numerals 


i are as follo"ws; 


I. 


ine. 


8. 


acht. 


1 5. finftsa7te. 


2. 


tsvi. 


9- 


7toyn. 


16. zex tsane. 


3- 


dri. 


10. 


tsane. 


17. ^eebentsane. 


4- 


feer. 


II. 


elf. 


18. achttsane. 


5- 


finf- 


12. 


tsvelf. 


1 9. noyntsane. 


6. 


zex. 


13- 


dreytsane. 


20. tsvantsig. 


7- 


zeeben. 


14. 


feer tsane. 





Good Practical Questions. 

1. Why is not the rain which falls near the ocean salt like the 
ocean ? 

2. Name a tree of the forest which produces a valuable article 
of food. 

3. Name five animals which have hoofs and five which have 
claws. 

4. If the country should become bankrupt which would be more 
valuable, a silver dollar or a dollar bill ? 

5. What part of the world is called the " Dark Continent? " 

6. One of the continents has more people than all the others put 
together : which one is it ? 

7. Which way does the water flow at the#Strait of Gibraltar — 
into the Mediterranean or out of it? (Into the Maditerranean. 
Why ?) 

8. What is the chief ruler called in Japan ? Persia ? Turkey ? 
Russia ? 

9. In what part of the United States does the point farthestfrom 
the ocean water lie ? Name the city of more than 25,000 popula- 
tion which is farthest from either ocean or the Gulf of Mexico. 

10. Describe three important methods of growing and manufac- 
turing sugar. 

11. In what part of the world are the days and nights of equal 
length ? 

12. What change in the air is indicated when the mercury in the 
barometer has fallen an inch during a single night ? 

13. There is in the world a straight line of railway 400 miles 
long : what cities does it connect ? 

14. In what direction does the wind always blow at the south 
pole? 

15. In a map of the world showing races and religions the 
Mohammedan countries are printed yellow : what portions of the 
map are this color? 

16. Only two European capitals are on the open sea; name 
them. 




Fireflies shine only when in motion. 

Every tub must stand on its own bottom. 

Things slowly obtained are long retained. 

Buy nothing unnecessary, no matter how cheap. 

Perseverance removes mountains, or tunnels them. 

Doing nothing is an apprenticeship to doing wrong. 

Nothing is so hard as to make a fortune dishonestly. 

An unselfish. Christlike man is the noblest work of 
God. 

Be sure you have a loaf, and not a stone, before you 
bite. 

A bad promise is worse kept than broken, but better 
not spoken. 

He who waits for something to turn up" is likely to 
turn up in jail. 

You can sell a good deal more than you do by filling 
up your measures. 

Don't overwork to gain $200 and then spend $500 in 
regaining your health. 

There is always work for skilled hands. " To him 
that hath shall be given." 

Take people as they are, but not without an effort to 
make them as they should be. 

A lazy man is of no more use in the world than a 
dead man and he takes up more room. 
213 



BUSINESS POINTS FOR YOUNG BUSINESS MEN. 

If you undertake to do a thing, do it. " Whatsoever 
thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might." 

Do your best every time, even in small matters. 
Whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well. 

Never make a promise which you cannot perform. " 
Incur no responsibility which you cannot meet with- 
out distress. 

When you open one hand to secure a new customer, 
be sure not to allow the old customer to escape from 
the other hand. 

When a business is said to run itself, it is generally 
the result of the force of gravitation. Gravity is 
always downward. 

Some of the meanest men that breathe are strictly 
honest, but they don't "do to others as they would 
they should do to them." 

When you have made a fair success along a certain 
line, avoid deviating from it. The avenues of success 
are constantly narrowing. 

It is hardly fair to represent Justice any longer with 
a pair of scales in her hands. Put the blind-folding on 
the customer and call it injustice. 

When you seek to obtain credit in excess of the 
amount of your capital, you have crossed the prudent 
line which divides business from speculation. 

The man who sent a four-gallon jug for molasses 
and received it back with a bill for five gallons, said 
that he didn't mind the extra gallon of molasses, but 
that he was afraid of the stress on the jug. Better be 
afraid of the stress on the conscience of those who 
weigh their goods by the false balance which is an 
abomination to the Lord. 




Remember that it is fully as entertaining to be a 

good listener as a good talker. It isn't the 

correct thing to pick your teeth at the table, or for 

that matter, to have tooth-picks on the table. A 

gentleman should be introduced to the lady, not the 

lady to the gentleman. Letters of introduction 

should be given unsealed. Gentlemen wear morn- 
ing dress for all occasions before dinner, Don't 

sandwich yourself between tvro ladies by taking 

their arms. Don't eat candy, frulit or anything, 

on the street, in the horse-car, or in any public 

place. Greet kindly all who greet you. 

Don't occupy two seats when others have to 

stand. Don't discuss your private affairs except 

with your most intimate friends. Don't kiss the 

bride except you are an intimate friend. Don't 

chat across the street. Don't mark the "wedding 

presents with the bride's future name. Don't 

carry your purse on your back : keep a little in your 
pockel. Don't use hair oil, good, bad, or indiffer- 
ent. Carry the parcels for the young lady with 

whom you are walking. Don't fail to apologize 

if you have said or done anything causing annoyance 

or trouble. Don't make the door swear when you 

shut it. Don't pour out your sweetest affection 

on a dog in a country where there are children. It 

is not the proper thing to sign your husband's name 
prefixed by "Mrs." to a letter of any kind. When you 

marry you change your surname only. Answer 

all invitations, but never on a postal or on business 

paper. Don't call on a young lady unless you 

have asked permission to do so. Kind hearts are 

more than coronets the world over. Perform in the 

domestic circle the same courtesies which you 
215 



THE CORRECT THING IN DRESS AND MANNERS. 

consider the proper thing to do in the circle of your 

acquaintances. Untrained characters do not 

willingly submit to any rules. — — Be specially con- 
siderate of the aged. Don't criticise. 

Don't arrive before you are expected.- The half- 
day before a visitor comes is the busiest of the week 

in a good many families. Never interrupt, rarely 

give advice, and seldom ask personal questions. 

Don't pry into other people's affairs. As a rule, 

those who know most are most modest. Never make 

a display of knowledge. He who makes fun 

of any branch of Christian faith lacks the Christian 

spirit. Never monopolize conversation. It 

doesn't take brains or heart to find fault. 

It is the proper thing to rise to your feet when 

visitors enter; also when they are leaving. 

The oldest residents in a city or street should 

call first upon the new-comers. Make it a 

rule of your life to praise people, and do it without 

flattery. "Rejoice with them that do rejoice, and 

weep with them that weep." It is a very common 

thing, but not the proper thing, to write a letter and 

say nothing in it. ^It is considered the proper 

thing for a lady to sign her last name and initials, 
instead of her Christian name, when writing to a 
comparative stranger, to a young person, to a servant, 

or when writing on business. The more truly 

religious a man is, the more polite he will spon- 
taneously become, and that, too, in every rank of life, 
for true religion teaches us to forget ourselves, to love 
our neighbors, and to be kindly even to our e;iemies. 
There are no better rules of conduct than are found 

in the sermon on the mount. The golden 

rule is the best rule in both society and business. 

High moral character, a polished education, a 

perfect command of temper, delicate feeling, good 
habits, and a good bearing, are the indispensable 
requisites for good society. Take Charles Dick- 
ens' advice and " do all the good you can, making 
as little fuss about it as possible." 



216 




THE TITLE OF THE BIBLE. 

The title of the Bible is of medieval origin. It is 
not found in Anglo-Saxon, though Gospel (God-spell 
or good-spell, i.e., story of God, or good story) has 
come to us from that tongue. The name Bible comes 
through the Norman-French from the Latin Biblia, 
which was treated in the Middle Ages as a feminine 
singular noun, though it was a mere transliteration of 
the Greek neuter plural Biblia, meaning books. In the 
Gospels, the Acts, and the Epistles, the books which 
were read in the Jewish synagogues are often entitled 
the scriptu7-es. Sometimes the law seems to be used 
as a name which comprehends them all. Paul, in a 
notable passage, calls the books of Moses the old 
covenant. In the same context he describes himself 
and his fellow-laborers as "ministers of a new cov- 
enant.'^'' Hence the two collections of writings which 
make up the Bible came to be called the Old Testa 
ment and the New Testament. 



THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 

Canon (Greek, a straight rod) is used figuratively 
of a testing rule in art, logic, grammar, or ethics. In 
the early ages of Christianity, the term was used 
generally to denote a standard of opinion and practice. 
To say that a book of the Bible is canonical is to 
signify that it is genuine. Apocryphal books are 
those of uncertain authority. 

VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES. 

Greek. Of these the Septitagint occupies the 
highest rank. According to tradition, it was translated 
from the Hebrew by seventy-two Jews, each of whom, 
in a separate cell, made a complete translation of the 
entire Old Testament, and, when compared, these 
seventy-two copies were found to be so completely 
identical that they were deemed to be inspired. 

Syriac. The Peshito version has been attributed 
to the first century after Christ. It contains all the 
canonical books of the Old Testament and most of 
those of the New. This version has been always 
accepted by all sections of the Syrian church as 
authentic, and from it several Arabic translations 
have been made. 



Handy bible notes. 



Latin. The principal Latin version is known as 
the Vulgate. For the work of revision Jerome took 
up his residence at oethiehem, and was occupied upon 
it for twenty-one years. 

English. Wycliffe translated the New Testament 
from the Latin Vulgate. His followers added the Old 
Testament (1380). Tyndale^s New Testament was 
printed in 1525. Translations were prepared also by 
Coverdale, Cranmer, and others. The authorized ver- 
sion was translated from the Hebrew^ and Greek (by 
order of James I.) by forty-seven divines, each taking 
a portion which was revised by the whole body. 

GENUINENESS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

External evidence. The Jews, to whom these 
books were entrusted, have been in all ages unanimous 
in their testimony that the several books were written 
by the men whose names they bear. The authors, also, 
frequently quote one another as authoritative and 
genuine, and many of the bcoks are so quoted by 
Jesus Christ. 

Internal evidence. The writers, with few excep- 
tions, profess to be Jews of Palestine, a people 
peculiarly separated from the rest of mankind by 
religion, by unique customs, and by physical position. 
These peculiarities are implicitly maintained through- 
out the whole books, and remain with the Jews until 
the present day. Except in Daniel and Ezra, the 
language is uniformly Hebrew, which ceased to be a 
living speech soon after the Babylonish Captivity. 
Some parts of Daniel and also of Ezra are written in 
Hebrew, others in a form of Aramaic. This phenom- 
enon finds its explanation in the residence of Daniel 
and Ezra at Babylon. The records contain histories, 
frequent genealogies, and biographies, all of which are 
capable of more or less verification from other records. 

GENUINENESS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

The existence and authority of the several books in 
the New Testament are attested by quotations in a 
series of Christian writers which begins with the 
immediate successors of the Apostles. There is no 
manuscript of the New Testament, or any part of it, 
extant wHich was written within the first three cen- 
turies. The oldest known manuscript is in Greek. 
It was found by Tischendorf in the convent of St. 
Catherine, on Mt. Sinai, in 1859. This MS. is now in 
the St. Petersburg Library. Other very old manu- 
scripts are preserved in the British Museum, the 
Vatican Library, and other places. 

218 



Handy Sible notes. 



DIVISION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

The Pentateuch. 

The Five Books of Moses. 
The Historical Books. 

From Joshua to Esther, inclusive. 
The Poetical Books. 

PVom Job to the Song of Solomon, inclusive. 
The Prophetical Books. 

From Isaiah to Malachi, inclusive. 

DIVISION OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

The Four Gosels. 

Two by Apostles and two by Evangelists. 
The Acts of the Apostles. 

Written by Luke. 
The Pauline Epistles. 

Ten addressed to Churches, three to persons. 
The Catholic Epistles. 

By James, Peter, John and Jude. 
The Revelation of John, the Divine. 

JEWISH PEOPLES. 

The Galileans were a turbulent and seditious sect. 
Their leader was Judas, of Galilee, (Acts 5: 37) who 
attracted to himself a few Pharisees. They taught 
that all foreign domination was unscripturaL 

The Pharisees were a religious party who affected 
very great sanctity. They were strict observers of the 
external rites and ceremonies beyond the requirements 
of the Law, placing the traditions of the elders on an 
equal footing with the written oracles. They w^ere 
exclusive, formal, self-righteous; proud of their un- 
blemished descent from Abraham. 

The Proselytes were Gentiles converted to 
Judaism. The circumcised Proselytes were charged 
with the entire obligations of the Mosaic covenant. 

The Publicans were a social class. They were 
the tax-collectors of the civil power, and as such were 
universally despised. 

The Sadducees were the very opposite of the 
Pharisees. They denied the authority of all revela- 
tion and tradition subsequent to Moses. They gave 
themselves up to ease, luxury, and self-indulgence. 
They divided the hierarchy with the Pharisees. 

The Samaritans were a mixed people, derived 
from the colonists whom the King of Assyria sent to 
inhabit the land of Samaria after he had carried the 
Israelites captive. These colonists brought with 
them their various forms of idolatry. 

219 




m^ -READINGS- 



I. A Change of Local Coloring. 

I knew a lass, her eyes were blue, 

Her lips were red, 

Her teeth were white, 
And her hair was of a golden hue. 

But now, alas ! her lips are blue, 

Her eyes are red, 

Her hair is white. 
And her teeth are of a golden hue. 

For Father Time (^ke mean old thing) 
Has changed the local coloring. 

2. Whisperin^ Bill. 

So you're takin' the census, mister? There's three of us living 

still, 
My wife an' I, an' our only son, that folks call Whisperin' Bill ; 
But Bill couldn't tell ye his name, sir, an' so its hardly worth 

givin'. 
For ye see a bullet killed his mind an' left his body livin'. 

Set down for a minute, mister. Ye see. Bill was only fifteen 

At the time o' the war, an' as likely a boy as ever this world has 

seen ; 
An' what with the news o' battles lost, the speeches an' all the 

noise, 
I guess every farm in the neighborhood lost a part of its crop o' 

boys. 

'Twas harvest time when Bill left home ; every stock in the field 

o' rye 
Seemed to stand tip-toe to see him off an' wave him a fond 

goodbye ; 
His sweetheart was here with some other girls — the sassy little 

miss ! 
An' pretendin' she wanted to whisper'n his ear, she gave him a 

rousin' kiss. 

Oh, he was a han'some feller, an' tender an* brave an' smart. 

An' though he was bigger than I was, the boy had a woman's 

heart. 
I couldn't control my feelin's, but I tried with all my might, 
An' his mother an' me stood a-cryin' till Bill was out o' sight. 

His mother she often told him, when she knew he was goin' away, 
That God would take care o' him, maybe, if he didn't fergit to 

pray ; 
An' on the bloodiest battle-fields, when bullets whizzed in the air, 
An' Bill was a-fightin' desperit, he used to whisper a prayer. 

Oh, his comrades has often told me that Bill never flinched a bit 
When every second a gap in the ranks told where a ball had hit. 
An' one night, when the field was covered with the awful harvest 

o' war, 
They found my boy 'mongst the martyrs o' the cause he was 

fightin' for. 



GOOD READINGS AND RECITATIONS. 



His fingers was clutched in the dewy grass — oh, no, sir, he was'nt 

dead, 
But he lay sort o' helpless an' crazy with a rifle-ball in his head ; 
An' if Bill had really died that night I'd give ail I've got worth 

givin' ; 
For ye see the bullet had killed his mind and left his body livin'. 

An officer wrote an' told us how the boy had been hurt in the fight, 
But he said that the doctors reckoned they could bring him around 

all right. 
An' then we heard from a neighbor, disabled at Malvern Hill, 
That he thought in the course of a week or so he'd be comin' home 

with Bill. 

We was that anxious t'see him, we'd set up an' talk o' nights, 
Till the break o' day had dimmed the stars an' put out the northern 

lights ; 
We'd waited an' watched fer a month or more, an' the summer was 

nearly past. 
When a letter came one day that said they'd started for home at 

last. 

I'll never f ergit the day Bill came — 'twas harvest time again — 
An' the air blown over the yellow fields was sweet with the scent 

o* the grain ; 
The dooryard was full o' the neighbors, who had come to share 

our joy. 
An' all of us sent up a mighty cheer at the sight o' that soldier boy. 

An' all of a sudden somebody said: " My God! don't the boy 

know his mother?" 
An' Bill stood a-whisperin' fearful like, an' starin' from one to 

another : 
"Don't be afraid, Bill," said he to himself, as he stood in his coat 

o' blue ; 
" Why, God'll take care o' you, Bill, God'll take care o' you." 

He seemed to be loadin' an' firin' a gun, an' to act like a man who 

hears 
The awful roar o' the battle field a-sounding in his ears ; 
I saw that the bullet had touched his brain an' somehow made it 

blind. 
With the picture o' war before his eyes an' the fear o' death in his 

mind. 

I grasped his hand, an' says I to Bill, " Don't ye remember me? 
I'm your father — don't ye know me ? How frightened ye seem to 

be! " 
But the boy kep' a-whisperin' to himself, as if 'twas all he knew, 
" God'll take care o' you. Bill, God'll take care o' you." 

He's never known us since that day, nor his sweetheart, an' never 

will ; 
Father an' mother an' sweetheart are all the same to Bill. 
An' many's the time his mother sets up the whole night through, 
An' smoothes his head an' says: "Yes, Bill, God'll take care o' 

you." 

Unfortunit? Yes, but we can't complain. It's a livin' death more 

sad 
When the body clings to a life o' shame an' the soul has gone to 

the bad. 
An' Bill is onto' the reach o' harm an' danger of every kind — 
We only take care o' his body, but God takes care o' his mind. 

^— Irving BacheUer^. 



GOOD READINGS AND RECITATIONS. 



3. The Debating Society. 

De subjeck app'inted fur debate last Sadday night were, " Ef a 
man have a watermillion vine growin' clost to de fence, an' dat 
vine run over de fence into his naber's yard an' grows a watermil- 
Uon dar, who do dat million b'long to? " 

As dis were a question tetchin' on pints er de law, an' it hed 
been nprated aroun' among de members daf bre'r Chrismus Towns 
was agwineter mek one er his famous perfessional speeches, 
ev'ybody 'spected dar would be a mighty incitin' debate; an' so 
bre'r Edom, bre'r Juber an' bre'r Thusaleh, dey was app'nted em- 
pires to jedge which side got de bessest er de argyment. 

Brt'r Jerry Flagg was de fust to tek de fio'. He lowed dat he 
thunk de watermillion oughter b'long, uf rights, to de one on whose 
Ian' de vine growed. " 'Caze," sez he, " dat vine amt got no bis- 
niss a-runnin' off fum whar hit was planted, no mo'n a boss or a 
hog aint got none a-runnin' off fum de medder whar dey feeds ; 
an' ef dey does git out an' strays off, an' you fines 'em in yo' 
naber's field, dat doan mek 'em his'n; but you ketches 'em an' 
brings 'em home agin an' dey's jes as much yo'n as dey was befo'. 
An' lackwise, ef yo' chillun gits outer de house an goes over to 
play in yo' naber's yard, dat doan mek 'em his chillun ; an I doan 
see no mo' reason why dat would mek it his watermillion ef yo' 
vine clomb over de pertition fence an' bo' a million on his side." 

Den bre'r Jorum he riz up and seh: 

" Misser President, hit appear to my observation dat bre'r Jerry 
have not took his p'lnt accordin' to de loginkle reason er de ques- 
tion, fur waterrailluns an' chilluns, dey is objecks so diffunt in dere 
natur' dat de same argyments can't imply to bote. Now, yo' chil- 
lun an' yo' hogs an' yo' bosses an' other beases, dey is yo'n ever- 
whar, caze dey is anamils — leastways bosses an' hogs and beases 
is, an' chillun, dey islivin' creeturs mos' samer den anamils while 
dey is young; an' so ef dey absquanders fum home you has de 
right to cotch 'em an' fetch 'em back agin. But watermilluns dey 
is vegitable perductions, an' ev'y scium.dfic pusson knows dat ana- 
mils and vegitables is intirely diffunt in dere natur'. Furthermo', 
vegitable perductions has nateral diffunces among deyselves. Dar 
is pertaters and perternups, fur instance, which dey grows down 
un'er de groun' an' has to be dug up fo' you kin eat 'em; an' dar 
is apples an' peaches, which de}' grows high up over our head an' 
lias to be shuk down. Now, ef yo axes me why dat apple falls 
down to the groun' when it air shuk off'n de tree, stider risin' up 
in de aar lack smoke, I a,nswers you, in de langwidge er sciumce, 
becaze it air de natur' er de apple to fall. An' jes so when my de- 
ponent seh dat a watermillun vine aint got no business a-runnin off 
fum whar hit were planted, I answers him dat it air de natur' er de 
watermillun vine to run. Some vines runs one way and some 
ernother; some runs up an' some runs down, an' some runs all 
over de groun' lack de watermillun, an' if you plants dat watermil- 
lun too clost to de fence, hit's a gwinter run over it on t'other side, 
an' you aint got no right to tek it away fum de man over dar, 'caze 
it air de natur' er vines to run, an' dat watermillun air jis only a-fol- 
lerin' up its natur. To put de argyment in a silly gizzard, which 
air de only sciumterrific motion er reasonin', hit stan' jesso : 

'* Dat watermillun vine have runned over de fence : 

" Hit air de natur 'er vines to run ; 

" Darfo' de watermillun on dat vine b'longsto de man on t'other 
side er de fence. 

" Now, dar is de whole argyment abjuiced to a silly gizzard, an' 
I'd jes lack to see anybody try to knock de bottom outen it." 

Bre'r Jorum was mightily applawded when he sot down, an' 
ev'ybody 'lowed dere nuver had ben sech a splendid argyment 
made in de s'ciety befo' an' dey could'nt see how even bre'r Chris- 
mus was a gwineter answer all dat logink an' larnin*. 

But bre'r Chrismus knowed hissef, an' he wasn't gwineter be 



GOOD READINGS AND RECITATIONS. 



skeered by nobody's larnin'. He useter go to all de cotes wid his 
ole massa, an' had heard jedges an' juries in his day, an' so he 
knowed he'd git de law on his side ef bre'r Jorum did have de 
logink on his'n. He was dressed up in his Sunday clo'es an' 
when he begun to speak his voice rolled froo de room so deep an' 
'snoreous jes' lack thunder, an' de ordiumce all sot still an' listened 
as intentive as if dey had ben prettified by his illikence. 

" Misser President an' gentlemen er de jury," sez he, "right- 
eousnesses should be jesticeness, an' should be required at the 
ban's uf ev'y man aforesaid, which is often inconsistence of salt 
an' battery ; wharas, de influence er Nolly Prossekys air very 
enticin' to de injyment er statistics. By de violater de expecta- 
tions aforesaid could not be positive in a case er hab his corpses, 
but de intercedence er perlarity is ve'y strong to de decouragement 
er de mine, as aforesaid. A gempleman er yo' cibilities have got 
his book an' his Bible an' his double edication. When a man has 
got abunnance er superfluity his frien's an' relationer is aroun' him 
to gin him de books on conterdiction an' a full accommendation in 
de States er Alabam. Look over de raiments er Alabam ! I doan 
see nothin' wuth a gemman's attention. 

" I has now splained my books on conterdiction, an' aint got 
nothin' mo' to seh on de supernateral charge, so I turn nex to de 
sublimitary regurlations er de reconnyzance. When a man have 
brought de plaintive er his defence to de obstruction er de Consti- 
tutional limitations, he mus' have de rights er hab his corpses fur a 
deplorandum deprivatum. De cote cornsiders dis question a con- 
junction f um de legal indicament uf its depennance on de legisla- 
tive man damns to obtain de powers er de position. Darfo' be it 
deferred and proclaimed as aforesaid, to all men here presents, 
dat de writs er search yo rarry will tend to de intercedence er de 
p-irsecution; an de fendents air brought to a state er consumption 
ad norum follerorum." 

When bre'r Chrismus sot down de members all clapped an' 
plawded tell it look lack de house 'ud come down, an' dey was all 
erbleedged to give up dat his speech hed beat even bre'r Jorum's 
fur dar was words in it dat bre'r Jorum hisself did'nt know de 
meanin' on. De empires decided uranimously dat bre'r Chrismus 
hed gain de vict'ry fur his side. Only dey couldn't zackly mek out 
which side he was on, so dey couldn't say no further, ceptin' dat 
bre'r Chrismus's was de winnin' side, whichever side er de fence 
he moight think dat watermillion b'long to. — E. F. Andrews. 

4. Wakin' the Young Uns. 

The old man from the foot of the stairs — 5 A. M.] 

Bee-ull! Bee-ull! O Bee-ull ! my gracious, 
Air you still sleepin' ? 
Th' hour hand's creepin' 
Nearder five. 
(Wal' darned ef this 'ere ain't vexatious I) 
Don't ye hear them cattle callin' ? 
An' th' ole red steer a bawlin' ? 
Come, look alive ! 
Git up ? Git up ! 

Mar'ann ! Mar'ann ! C Jist hyar her snorin' ! ) 
Mar'ann 1 it's behoovin' 
Thet you be amovin' ! 
Brisk, I say ! 
Hyar the kitchen stove aroarin' ? 
The kittle's a-spilin' 
To get hisse'f bilin' 
It's comin' day. 

Git up ! Git up ! 

223 



GOOD READINGS AND RECITATIONS. 



Jule, O Jule ! Now whut is ailin' ? 
You want ter rest ? 
War I'll be blest! 
S'pose tbem cows 
'LI give down 'ithout you palin' ? 
You mus' be goin' crazy ; 
Er, more like, gittin' lazy. 
Come now, rouse. 
Git up ! Git up ! 

Jake, you lazy varmint ! Jake ! Hey, Jake ! 
What you layin' theer fer? 
You know the stock's ter keer fer ; 
So, hop out ! 
(Thet boy is wusser'n rock to wake ! ) 
Don't stop to shiver, 
But jist unkiver 
An' pop out ! 

Git up ! Git up ! 

Young uns ! Bee-ull ! Jake ! Mar'ann ! Jule ! 
(WaP dummy orn'ry skin ! 
They've gone ter sleep agin, 
Fer all my yellin' ! ) 
See hyar, I hain't no time ter fool ! 
It's the las' warnin' 
I'll give this mornin' 
I'm done yellin' ! 

Git up ! Git up ! 

SOLUS. 

Wal' what's the odds — an hour, more or less ? 
B'lieve it makes 'em stronger 
Ter sleep a leetle longer 
Thar in bed. 
The times is comin' fas' enough, I guess, 
When I'll wish, an' wish 'ith weepin' 
They was back up yonder sleepin', 
Overhead, 

Ter get up. 



-John Boss. 



5. Pluck and Prayer. 

There wan't any use o' fretting. 

And I told Obadiah so, 
For ef we couldn't hold on to things, 

We'd just got to let 'em go. 
There were lots of folks that'd suffer 

Along with the rest of us. 
An' it didn't seem to be worth our while 

To make such a dreffle fuss. 

To be sure' the barn was 'most empty. 

An' corn an' pertaters sca'ce, 
An' not much of anything plenty an' cheap 

But water — and apple-sass. 
But then — as I told Obadiah — 

It wan't any use to groan, 
For flesh and blood couldn't stan' it ; and he 

Was nothing but skin an' bone, 

224 



GOOD READINGS AND RECITATIONS. 



But laws ! ef you'd only heard him, 

At any hour of the night 
A-prayin' out in that closet there 

'Twould have set you crazy quite. 
I patched the knees of those trousers 

With cloth that was no ways thin, 
But it seemed as ef the pieces were wore out 

As fast as I set 'em in. 

To me he said mighty little 

Of the thorny way we trod, 
But at least a dozen times a day 

He talked it over with God. 
Down on his knees in that closet 

The most of his time was passed; 
For Obadiah knew how to pray 

Much better than how to fast. 

But I am that way contrairy 

That ef things don't go jest right, 

feel like rollin' my sleeves up high 

An' gittin' ready to fight. 
An' the giants 1 slew that winter 

I ain't going to talk about ; 
An' I didn't even complain to God, 

Though I think that He found it out. 

With the point of a cambric needle 

I druv the wolf from the door ; 
For I knew that we needn't starve to death 

Or be lazy because we were poor. 
An' Obadiah he wondered, 

An' kept me patching his knees, 
An' thought it strange how the meal held out, 

An' stranger we didn't freeze. 

But I said to myself in whispers, 

" God knows where his gift descends ; 
An' 'tisn't always that faith gets down 

As far as the fingers-ends." 
An' I would not have no one reckon 

My Obadiah a shirk ; 
For some, you know, have the gift to pray, 

And others the gift to work. 

— Harper'' s Weekly, 



Familiar Quotations. 

Absence. 

Absence makes the heart grow fonder. — Bayley, 

Adornment. 

Loveliness is, when unadorned, adorned the most. — Thompson. 

Age. 

Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale 
Her infinite variety. — Shakespeare. 

Ambition. 

Lowliness is young ambition's ladder, — Shakespeare. 

"^ 225 



GOOD READINGS AND RECITATIONS. 



Bacon and Cromwell. 

If poets allure thee, think how Bacon shined, 
1 he wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind ! 
Or, ravished with the whistling of a name. 
See Cromwell damned to everlasting fame ! — Pope, 
Blessings. 

How blessings brighten as they take their flight! — Young, 
Brave. 

None but the brave deserves the fair. — Dry den. 
Coming Events. 

'Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore. 
And coming events cast their shadows before. — Campbell. 
Compliance. 

He that complies against his will 

Is of his own opinion still. — Butler. 

Crown. 

Uneasy lies the head that wears the crown. — Shakespeare. 
Desert air. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene 

The dark, unfathom'd caves of ocean bear : 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray. 

Distance. 

'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 

And robes the mountain in its azure hue. — Campbell. 

Dunce. 

How much a dunce that has been sent to roam. 
Excels a dunce that has been kept at home. — Cowper. 

Divinity. 

There's a divinity that shapes our ends, 
Rough-hew them how we will. — Shakespeare. 

To Err. 

To err is human, to forgive divine. — Pope. 

Expectation. 

Oft expectation fails, and most oft there 
Where most it promises. — Shakespeare. 

Fail. 

In the lexicon of youth, which fate reserves 
For a bright manhood, there is no such word 
As — fail, — Bulwer. 

Faults. 

They say, best men are moulded out of faults. — Shakespeare. 
Fools. 

For fools admire, but men of sense approve. — Pope. 
Good. 

The good are better made by ill, 

As odors crushed are sweeter still. — Rogers. 

Idler. 

An idler is a watch that wants both hands. 
As useless if it goes as if it stands. — Cowper. 

226 



GOOD READINGS AND RECITATIONS. 

Learning. 

A little learning is a dangerous thing. — Pope. 

Love. 

The course of true love never did run smooth. — Shakespeare. 
Man's love is .of man's life a thing apart, 
'Tis woman's whole existence. — Byron. 

Love is loveliest. 

The rose is fairest when 'tis budding new, 

The hope is brightest when it dawns from fears, 

The rose is sweetest washed with morning dew, 

And love is loveliest when embalmed in tears. — Scott. 

Loved and Lost. 

'Tis better to have loved and lost, 

Than never to have loved at all. — Tennyson. 

Name. 

What's in a name ? That which we call a rose 

By any other name would smell as sweet. — Shakespeare. 

He that filches from me my good name, 
Robs me of that which not enriches him. 
And makes me poor indeed. — Shakespeare. 

Nature. 

One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. — Shakespeare, 

Pen. 

The pen is mightier than the sword. — Bulwer. 

Procrastination. 

Procrastination is the thief of time. — Young. 

Rest. 

Absence of occupation is not rest, 

A mind quite vacant is a mind distress 'd. — Cowper. 

Sport. 

If all the year were playing holidays. 

To sport would be as tedious as to work. — Shakespeare. 

Tears. 

If you have tears prepare to shed them now. — Shakespeare. 

Thing of Beauty. 

A thing of beauty is a joy forever. — Keats. 

Tide. 

There is a tide in the affairs of men, 

Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune ; 

Omitted, all the voyage of their life 

Is bound in shallows, and in miseries. — Shakespeare. 

Ignorance. 

When ignorance is bliss, 
'Tis folly to be wise. — Gray. 

Teaching. 

Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, 

To teach the young idea how to shoot. — Thompson. 

227 




Land Measure and Homestead Law. 

A Township is 36 sections, each a mile square or 640 acres. 
A quarter section, half a mile square, is 160 acres. An eighth 
section, half a mile long north and south, and a quarter of a mile 
wide, is 80 acres. A sixteenth section, a quarter of a mile square, 
is 40 acres. 

The sections are numbered i to 36, commencing at northeast 
corner, thus : 



6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


NW 
SW 


NE 
SE 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


18 


17 


16 


15 


14 


13 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


30 


29 


28 


27 


26 


25 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 



The sections are all divided into quarters, which are nanxed by 
the cardinal points, as in section i. The quarters are divided in 
the same way. The description of a forty-acre lot would read : 
The south half of the west half of the southwest quarter of section 
I, township 24, north of range 7 west, or as the case might be: 
and sometimes will fall short, and sometimes overrun the number 
of acres it is supposed to contain. 

Homestead Privilege. —The laws give to every citizen, and 
to those who have declared their intention to become citizens, the 
right to a homestead on surveyed lands, to the extent of one 
quarter section, or 160 acres, or a half-quarter section, or 80 
acres; the formgr in cases of lower-priced lands held bv law at 
$1-25 per acre, the latter of higher-priced lands held at $2.50 per 
acre, when disposed of to cash buyers. The pre-emption privilege 
is restricted to heads of families, widows or single persons over 
the age of twenty- one. 

Every soldier and officer in the army, and everv seaman, marine, 
and officer of the navv, during the recent rebellion may enter 160 
acres from either class, and le^-^th of time he served in the army 
0t navy is deducted from the time required to perfect title, 
228 



CoMPEiSIDIUM OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 



Memorable Battles of the World. 

Marathon, 490 b.c, in which the Athenians, 1 1,000 strong, 
under Miitiades, defeated the Persians, 110,000 strong, under 
Xerxes. 

Thermopylae. Here, 480 b.c , Leonidas, at the head of 300 
Spartans, and 700 Thespians, withstood the whole force of the 
Persians for three days. The enemy being secretly guided to the 
rear of the Greeks, the latter, hemmed in between two assailants, 
perished gloriously, all but one man, who was held in dishonor for 
his flight. 

Philippi. Here, 42 b.c, Octavius Csesar and Marc Antony 
defeated the Republican forces of Brutus and Cassius, who, there- 
upon, both committed suicide. 

Tours, A.D. 732, in which Charles Martel defeated the Saracens, 
and Europe was rescued from Islam. 

Hastings, where, io66,Wilham, at the head of his Normans, 
defeated Harold commanding the Saxon English. 

Bannockburn, where, 13 14, 30,000 Scots, under Robert the Bruce, 
defeated 100,000 English under Edward II. 

Lutzen. Here 1632, Gustavus Adolphus defeated the Imper- 
ialists under Wallenstein. 

Spanish Armada of 132 ships, under Medina Sidonia, scattered 
by the English fleet, 1588. 

Quebec won, 13 September, 1759, by Wolfe, from the French 
general, Montcalm. 

Saratoga. Here, 1777, the British were finally beaten by their 
American colonists, henceforward the United States. 

Trafalgar, off which, 1805, the British, under Nelson, gained 
a great victory over the combined fleets of France and Spain. 

"Waterloo, where, 18 June, 1815, the French, under Napoleon, 
were definitely driven back by the Allies under Wellington. 

Sedan, where, 3 September, 1870, the Franco-German war 
virtually ended by the surrender of Napoleon III. 

Eighteen Memorable Battles of the United States. 

Lexington April 19, 1775 Antietam Sept. 17, 1862 

Bunker Hill June 17, 1775 Fredericksburg Dec. 14, 1862 

Cowpens Jan. 17, 1781 Stone River Dec. 3r, 1862 

Perry's victory Sept. 10, 1813 Chancellorsville May 1-3, 1863 

New Orleans Jan. 8, 1815 Gettysburg July 1-3, 1863 

Buena Vista Feb. 23, 1846 Chickamauga Sept. 20, 1863 

Chapultepec Sept. 13, 1847 Nashville Dec. 16, 1864 

Shiloh April 7, 1862 Wilderness May 5-7, 1864 

Manassas Aug. 30, 1862 Petersburg June i^, 1864 

Famous Destructive Fires. 

New York, Dec, 1835 — over five hundred buildings and 
$20,000,000 worth of property destroyed ; Sept. 6, 1839, — 
$10,000,000 worth of property destroyed. Pittsburg, April 10, 
1845, ~ oils thousand buildings burnt; loss, $6,000,000. St. Louis, 
May 4, 185 1, — a large portion of the city burned ; loss, $11,000,000. 
Portland, Me., July 4, 1866,— almost entirely destroyed; loss, 
$15,000,000. Chicago. 111., Oct. 8-9, 1871, — over 2,000 acres burnt 
over; estimated loss, $195,000,000; July 14, 1874, another great fire 
destroyed $4,000,000 worth of property. Boston, Mass., Nov. g, 
1872, — nearly 450 buildings destroyed ; loss over $73,000,000. St. 
John, N.B., June 21, 1877; loss $12,500,000. 

Curiosities of the Bible. 

The Bible contains 3,566,480 letters, 773,746 words, 31,173 verses, 
T189 chapters, and 66 books. The word a?id occurs 46,277 times. 
The word Lord occurs 1855 times. The word revere^id occurs 
but once, which is the 9th verse of the mth Psalm. The middle 
verse is the 8th verse of the ii8th Psalm. The 21st verse of the 

229 



COMPENDIUM OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 



7th chapter of Ezra contains all the letters of the alphabet, except 
the letter J. The longest verse is the gth verse of the 8th chapetr 
of Esther. The shortest verse is the 35th verse of the nth chapter 
of St. John. There are no words or names of more than 6 
syllables. 

The Lady's Chance of Marrying. 

Representing a woman's entire chance of marrying at one 
hundred, the following will be the proportions at her different 
periods of life : 

Between the ages of 15 and 20 years 
'* " 20 " 25 " 



2"; 


30 


30 ' 


^' 35 


35 ' 


■; 40 


40 ' 


; ^5 


4.S ' 


'' 50 


50 ' 


■' 56 



T4'A 


per cent. 


52 




i8 




i^y. 




3^ 




2K 




of 1 




of I 





After sixty it is one tenth of one per cent., or one chance in a 
thousand. 

Words in the English Language. 

Shakespeare, who had the richest vocabulary u.sed by any 
Englishman, employed only 16,000 words. Milton could pick out 
from 8,000; but the average man, a graduate from one of the great 
universities, rarely has a vocabulary of more than 3000 or 4000 
words. The ordinary person can get along very comfortably with 
5000 words, and in the rural districts a knowledge of 200 words is 
sufficient to carry a man through his life. This of course refers to 
the needs of conversation. If a man wants to read newspapers 
and well-written books, he must know at least 2,000 words. 

Why is Food Required ? 

The question seems almost absurd, so familiar is the fact ; and 
yet the answer to it involves one of the grandest chapters in the 
history of science. In its simplest form it may be given in three 
words : it is fuel. We require food frequently, for just the same 
reason that a fire requires coal frequently and a lamp oil — because 
we are burning away. The air that we breathe into our lungs 
contains oxygen, and this oxygen combines with, or burns, the 
muscles or other organs of our bodies just as it does the coals in a 
fire. About 30 oz. of oxygen a day are thus consumed, requiring 
about 12 oz. of carbon to replace the waste, or say 3 lbs. of bread. 
The heat produced in a man's body in the course of a day is 
considerable in quantity, though not very intense in quality. 
Taking the average, it is enough to raise five and a half gallons of 
water from freezing-point to boiling-point, arid this is about the 
heat that would be given off during the burning of a pound of 
coal. All this heat comes from slow wasting or burning of the 
substance of the body, so that it is evident that if we did not make 
up for this constant loss by eating food, our organs would soon be 
wasted away and consumed. 

Curiosities in Figures. 

A very curious number is 142,857, which multiplied by 1,2, 3, 4, 
5, or 6 gives the same figures in the same order, beginning at a. 
different point ; but if multiplied bv seven gives all nines : Multi- 
pHed by i it equals 142,857; multiplied by 2 equals 285,714; 
multiplied by 3 equals 428,571; multiplied by 4 equals 571,428; 
multiplied by 5 equals 714,285: multiplied by 6 equals 857,142; 
multiplied bv 7 equals 999,999. Multiply 142,857 by 8 and you have 
1,142,856. Then add the first figure to the last and you have 
142,857, the original number, the figures exactly the same as at the 
start. Another mathematical wonder is the following: It is dis- 

230 



COMPENDIUM OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 



covered that the multiplication of 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, i, by 45 
gives 44, 44, 44, 44, 44, 45. Reversing the order of the digits 'and 
multiplying i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 by 45, we get a result equally 
curious— 5, 55, 555, 505. If we take i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 as the 
multiplicand, and interchanging the figures of 45 take 54 as the 
multiplier, 6, 666, 666, 606. Returning to the multiplicand 9, 8, 7, 
^* 5> 4» 3> 2, I, and taking 54 as the multiplier again, 53, 333, 333, 
34 — all 3's except the first and last figures, which together read 54, 
the multiplier. Taking the same multiplicand and 27, the half of 
54, as the multiplier we get a product of 26, 666, 666, 667 — all 6's 
except the first and last figures, which together read 27, the 
multiplier. Now interchanging the order of the figures 27, and 
using 72 as the multiplier, and 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, i as the multipli- 
cand, we get a product of 71, iii, iii, 112 — all I's except the 
first and last figures, which together read 72, the multiplier. 

Wedding Anniversaries. 

First — Cotton Wedding. Fifteenth — Crystal Wedding. 

Second — Paper Wedding. Twentieth — China Wedding 

Third — Leather Wedding. Twenty-fifth — Silver Wedding. 

Fifth — Wooden Wedding, Thirtieth — Pearl Wedding. 

Seventh — Woollen Wedding. Fortieth — Ruby Wedding. 

Tenth — Tin Wedding. Fiftieth — Golden Wedding. 

Twelfth — Silk Wedding. Seventy-fifth — Diamond Wedding. 

Starboard and Larboard, 

In Saxon bord means shield. In the Viking ships each warrior 
hung his shield on the side of the ship opposite to him, and above 
the aperture for his oar. The Viking held the steer oar, which was 
fastened to the right-hand side of the stern (stern itself is a 
contraction of steer oar). The right-hand side of the ship thus 
became the steer side ; and as board came to mean the whole side 
where the shields, or bords, were hung, the right side came to be 
the steer board (starboard) side, and the lower or lurking side 
became larboard. 

Wonders of the Heavens. 

There are 18 stars of the first magnitude. These are at least 
211,000 times farther from the earth than is the sun, and their light 
takes over 3 years to reach us. There are 55 of the second magni- 
tude, their light taking over 6 years to reach us; 170 of the third 
magnitude, their light reaching us in over g years ; 500 of the 
fourth magnitude, their light taking 12 years to reach us. Stars as 
distant as those of the sixth magnitude, their light taking 36 years 
to traverse the intervening space, are visible to the naked eye, 
Cf these there are about 6000. A 9-foot telescope reveals stars of 
the twelfth magnitude, about 10,000,000 in r umber. An 18-foot 
telescope reveals about 43,000,000 stars, including those of the 
13th magnitude, whose light takes 2700 years to reach us. Each of 
these stars is thought to be the centre of a solar system like our 
own. Our own solar system consists of the Sun, and the following 
planets revolving around it : Mercury, nearest the Sun, is 35,000,000 
miles distant; Venus, 66,000,000 miles; the Earth, 91,000,000 
miles; Mars, 139,000,000 miles; the Asteroids, about 266,000,000 
miles; Jupiter, nearly 476,000,000 miles; Saturn, 872,000,000 
miles; Uranus, 1,754,000,000 miles; and Neptune, 2,746,000,000 
miles from the Sun. 

How to Remove Tight Finger Rings. 

Pass the end of a piece of fine twine underneath the ring, and 
wind it evenly around the finger upward as far as the middle joint. 
Then take hold of the lower end of the string beneath the ring, and 
begin to slowly unwind upward, when the ring will gradually move 
along the twine toward the tip of the finger and come off. 



COMPENDIUM OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 



Remarriage. 

There are no restrictions upon remarriage by divorced persons in 
Arizona, Connecticut, Kentucky, Maine, and Illinois. Either 
party may remarry, but defendant (or either party in Kansas and 
Minnesota) must wait two years in Massachusetts, three years in 
Vermont, six months in Kansas, fi'^e years in Missouri, the time 
allowed for appeal in Nebraska, Oregon, and Washington. The 
decree of the court may restrain the guilty party from remarrying 
in Alabama, Georgia, Maryland, Mississippi, and Virginia. 
Parties cannot rernarry, except by permission of the court, in 
Maine. In Dakota and New York, the plaintiff may remarry, but 
the defendant, divorced for violation of the marriage vow, cannot 
do so during the plaintiff's lifetime, unless the decree be modified 
or proof that five years have elapsed and that complainant has 
married again and defendant's conduct has been uniformly good. 
Any violation of this is punished as bigamy, even though the other 
party has been married. In Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Ten- 
nessee, no wife or husband divorced for violation of the marriage 
vow can marry the. particeps criminis during the life of the former 
husband or wife, nor in Louisiana at any time ; such marriage in 
Louisiana renders the person divorced guilty of bigamy. 

Digestion of Food. 

The following table shows the time, in hours and minutes, re- 
quired for the digestion of the more common articles of food : 



KIND OF FOOD. 


H 


M 


KIND OF FOOD 


H 


M 


Rice, boiled 




CO 


Eggs, soft-boiled 


3 


00 


Eggs, whipped 




30 


Beefsteak, broiled 


3 


00 


Trout, fresh, fried 




30 


Mutton, broiled 


3 


00 


Soup, barley, boiled 




30 


Mutton, boiled 


3 


00 


Apples, sweet, raw 




30 


Soup, bean, boiled 


3 


00 


Venison steak, broiled 




30 


Chicken soup, boiled 


3 


00 


Sago, boiled 




45 


Pork, salt, boiled 


3 


15 


Tapioca, boiled 


2 


00 


Mutton, roasted 


3 


15 


Barley, boiled 


2 


00 


Bread, corn, baked 


3 


15 


Milk, boiled 


2 


GO 


Carrot, boiled 


3 


15 


Liver, beef, broiled 


2 


GO 


Sausage, broiled 


3 


20 


Eggs, fresh, raw. 


2 


GO 


Oysters, stewed 


3 


30 


Apples, sour, raw, 


2 


00 


Butter 


3 


30 


Cabbage, raw 


2 


00 


Cheese, old 


3 


30 


Milk 


2 


15 


Bread, fresh-baked 


3 


30 


Eggs, roasted 


2 


15 


Turnips, flat, boiled 


3 


30 


Goose, roasted 


2 


30 


Potatoes, Irish, boiled 


3 


30 


Turkey, roasted 


2 


30 


Eggs, hard-boiled 


3 


30 


Cake, sponge, baked 


2 


30 


Green corn, boiled 


3 


45 


Hash, warmed 


2 


30 


Beans and beets, boiled 


3 


45 


Beans, pod, boiled 


2 


30 


Salmon, salted, boiled 


4 


00 


Parsnips, boiled 


2 


30 


Veal, fresh, fried 


4 


30 


Custard, baked 


2 


50 


Cabbage, boiled 


4 


30 


Oysters, raw 


2 


55 


Suet, beef, boiled 


5 


30 



The Longest Bridges in the World. 

The length of some of the longest bridges in the world are as fol- 
lows : Montreal, 8,701 feet long. Brooklyn, 5,989 feet long. 
Dnieper, 4,213 feet long. The new Havre de Grace bridge, 6,000 
feet long. Bridge at Homestead, near Pittsburg, Pa., 5,300 feet 
long. China has the longest bridge in the world ; it is 23,000 feet 
long ; its roadway is 70 feet wide and 70 feet high ; there are 300 
arches, and each of the pillars, which are 75 feet apart, bears a 
pedestal on which is the figure of a lion 21 feet long, and made out 
of one block of marble. 



COMPENDIUM OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 



The United States and Territories. 



States and Territories. 



Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas. 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District of Columbia... 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indian Territory. . 

Indiana . 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi , 

Missouri , 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont. 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



Popular Name. 



Cotton 



Bear 

Golden 

Centennial. . 

Nutmeg 

Blue Hen.. 

Peninsular. . 
Cracker 



Sucker . 



Hoosier . . . 
Hawkeye.. 
Sunflower. . 
Bluegrass. . 
Pelican . . . . 
Pine Tree. 
Old Line. . 

Bay 

Wolverine . 

Gopher 

Bayou 



Empire. ... 
Old North. 



Buckeye . . 
Beaver .. . 
Keystone. 

Palmetto . 



Volunteer . 
Lone Star 



Green Mountain 
Old Dominion . . 



Area i 
Sq. Miles. 



Black Water.... 

Silver 

Granite. .... 



Badger. 



52,250 
577^390 
113,020 

53,850 
158,360 

103,925 

4,990 

2,050 

70 

58,680 

59,475 
84,800 
56,650 
64,690 

36,350 
56,025 
82,080 
40,400 
48,720 
33,040 
12,210 
8,315 
58,915 
83,350 
46,810 

69,415 

146,080 

76,855 

110,700 

9,305 

7,815 

122,580 

49,170 

52,250 

70,795 
41,060 
96,030 

45,215 

1,250 

30,570 

77,650 

42,050 

265,780 

84,070 

9,565 

42,405 

69,180 

24,780 

56,040 

97,890 



Population. 
Census 1890. 



1,513,017 

38,000 

59,620 

1,128,179 

1,208,130 

412,198 

746,258 

168,493 

230,392 

391,432 

1,837,353 

84,385 

3,826,351 

345,000 

2,112,404 

1,911,896 

1,427,096 

1,858,635 

1,118,587 

661,086 

1,043,380 

2,238,943 

2,093,889 

1,301,826 

1,289,600 

2,679,184 

132,159 

1,058,910 

45,761 

376,530 
1,444,953 

153,593 
5»997»853 
1,617,947 

182,719 
3,672,316 

313,767 

5,258,014 

345,506 

1,151,149 
328,808 

i>767,5i8 

2,235,523 
207,905 
332,422 

1,655,980 
349,390 
762,794 

1,680,880 
60,705 



Greatest Known Depth of the Ocean. 

The greatest depth which has been ascertained by sounding is 
five miles and a quarter (25,720 feet, or 4,620 fathoms), not quite 
equal to the height of the highest known mountain. Mount Ever- 
est, which measures 29,002 feet, or 53^ miles high. The average 
depth between 60 degrees north and 60 degrees south, is nearly 
three miles. 



233 



COMPENDIUM OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 



Presidents of the United States. 



Presidents of the U. S. 



George Washington . . 

John Adams 

Thomas Jefferson .... 

James Madison 

James Monroe 

John Quincy Adams . 

Andrew Jackson 

Martin Van Buren . . . 
Wm. Henry Harrison 

John Tyler 

James K. Polk 

Zachary Taylor 

Millard Fillmore 

Franklin Pierce 

James Buchanan 

Abraham Lincoln. . . . . 
Andrew Johnson ..... 

Ulysses S. Grant 

Rutherford B. Hayes, 
James A. Garfield. . . . 
Chester A. Arthur. . . . 

Grover Cleveland . 

Benjamin Harrison... 



State. 


Politics. 


Date Election 


Virginia. 


Federalist. 


Jan. 


7» 


1789 


Mass. 


" 


JSJov. 


8, 


1796 


Virginia. 


Dem. Rep. 


Nov. 


II, 


1800 


" 




Nov. 


«, 


1808 


" 


" 


Nov. 


12, 


1816 


Mass. 


Coalition 


Nov. 


Q, 


1824 


Tenn. 


Democrat. 


Nov. 


III 


1828 


New York. 


" 


Nov. 


8, 


1836 


Ohio. 


Whig 


Nov. 


lO, 


1840 


Virginia. 










Tenn. 


Democrat. 
Whig? 


Nov. 


12, 


1844 


Louisiana 


Nov. 


7, 


1848 


New York. 










N. Hamp. 


Democrat. 


Nov. 


2, 


1852 


Penn. 


" 


Nov. 


4, 


1856 


Illinois. 


Republican. 


Nov. 


6, 


i860 


Tenn. 










Illinois. 


Republican. 


Nov. 


S, 


1868 


Ohio. 


" 


Nov. 


7i 


1876 


" 


i( 


Nov. 


2, 


1880 


New York. 










" 


Democrat. 


Nov. 


4. 


1884 


Indiana. 


Republican. 


Nov. 


6, 


1888 



The Washington Monument. 

The corner-stone was laid by President Polk, July 4th, 1848, and 
December 6, 1884, the cap-stone was set in position. The founda- 
tions are 126/^ feet square and 36 feet 8 inches deep. The base of 
the monument is 55 feet i}4 inches square, and the walls 15 feet /4 
inch thick. At the 500 foot mark, where the pyramidal top be- 
gins, the shaft is 34 feet 5K inches square and the walls are 18 
inches thick. The monument is made of blocks of marble 2 feet 
thick, and it is said there are over 18,000 of them. The height 
above the ground is 555 feet. The pyramidal top terminates in an 
aluminum tip, which is 9 inches high and weighs 100 ounces. The 
mean pressure of the monument is 5 tons per square foot, and the 
total weight, foundation and all, is nearly 81,000 tens. The door 
at the base, facing the capitol, is 8 feet wide and 16 feet high, and 
enters a room 25 feet square. An immense iron framework sup- 
ports the machinery of the elevator, which is hoisted with steel 
wire ropes two inches thick. At one side begins the stairs, of 
which there are fifty flights, containing eighteen steps each. Five 
hundred and twenty feet from the base there are eight windows, 
18x24 inches, two on each face. The area at the ba;se of the pyra- 
midal top is 1, 187/4 feet, space enough for a six-room house, each 
room to be 12x16 feet. The Cologne Cathedral is 525 feet high; 
the pyramid of Cheops, 486; Strasburg Cathedral, 474; St. 
Peter's at Rome, 448 ; the Capitol at Washington, 306, and Bunker 
Hill Monument, 221 feet. The Washington Monument, therefore, 
is the highest structure in the world. Externally the monument is 
complete, but it will take two years to complete the interior. 
When done the total cost will aggregate not far from ^1,500,000. 

Languages of the World. 

It is estimated that over 100 millions of people now speak the 
English language, over 41 millions the French, 69 millions German, 
.30 millions Italian, 41 millions Spanish, 13 millions Portuguese, 
and 67 millions Russian. 

, 234 



COMPENDIUM OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 



Casualties in Greatest Battles of Civil War. 



Battle. Killed. 



Federal. 
Wound- Miss- 
ed, ing. 



Gettysburg, c 3,070 i4,497 5,434 

Spottsylvania 2,725 13,413 2,258 

Wilderness. ..... .2,246 12,037 3,383 

Antietam. ..2,108 9,549 753 

Chancellorsville .. 1,606 9,762 5,919 

Chickamauga 1,656 9,749 4^774 

Cold Harbor 1,844 9,077 1,816 

Fredericksburg. .. 1,284 9,6oo 1,769 

Manassass ^^,747 8,452 4,263 

Shiloh 1,754 8,408 2,885 

Stone's River. ... 1,730 7,802 3,717 

Petersburg (ass'lt)i, 688 8,513 1,1-85 



Confederate. 

Wound- Miss- 
ed ing. 
2,592 12,706 5,150 



Killed. 



1,665 9,081 2,018 

2,268 13,613 1,090 

596 4,068 651 

1,723 8,012 959 

1,294 7,945 i)027 



Marriage Age in Different Countries. 

Tn Austria, 14 years for both sexes. Germany, the man at i3, 
the woman at 14. Belgium, the man at 18, the woman at 15. In 
Spain, the man at 14, the woman at 12. France, the man at 18, the 
woman at 15. Greece, the man at 14, the woman at 12. Hungary 
— Catholics, the man at 14, the woman at 12 ; Protestants, the man 
at 18, the woman at 15. Portugal, the man at 14, the woman at 12. 
Russia, the man at 18, the woman at 16. Saxony, the man at 18, 
the woman at 16. Switzerland, the man at 14, the woman at 12. 
Turkey, at puberty. 

The Pulse. 

Ages. Beats Ages. Beats 

per Minute. per Minute. 

At birth 130 to 140 Seven years 85 

One month 120 Puberty. 85 to 80 

One year 120 to 108 Adult age 75 to 70 

Two years ...... 108 to 90 Old age 65 to 60 

Three years 90 to 80 

The Law of Finding. 

The law of finding is this : The finder has a clear title against the 
whole world except the owner. The proprietor of a hotel or a shop 
has no right to demand the property or premises. Such proprietor 
may make regulations in regard to lost property which will bind 
their employes, but they cannot bind the public. The law of find- 
ing was declared by the King's bench over 100 years ago, in a case 
in which the facts werethese: 

A person found a wallet containing a sum of money on a shop 
floor. He handed the w^allet and contents to the shopkeeper to be 
returned to the owner. After three years, during which the owner 
did not call for his property, the finder demanded the wallet and 
the money from the shopkeeper. Tlie latter refused to deliver 
them up on the ground that they were found on the premises. The 
former then sued the shopkeeper, and it was held as above set 
forth, that against all the world but the owner, the title of the 
finder is perfect. And the finder has been held to stand in the 
place of the owner, so that he was permitted to prevail in an action 
against a person who found an article which the plaintiff had 
originally found, but subsequently lost. The police have no spe- 
cial rights in regard to articles lost, unless those rights are con- 
ferred by statute. Receivers of articles found are trustees for the 
owner or finder. They have no powder in the absence of special 
statute to keep ,an article against the finder, any more than the 
finder has to retain an article against the- owner. 

235 



COMPENDILfM OF FACTS AND FIGURE.^. 



The Great Canals of the World. 

The Imperial canal of China is over i,ooo miles long. In the 
year 1861 was completed the greatest undertaking of the kind on 
the European continent, the canal of Languedoc, or the Canal du 
Midi, to connect the Atlantic with the Mediterranean ; its length is 
148 miles, it has more than 100 locks, and about 50 aqueducts, and 
its highest part is no less than 600 feet above the sea; it is naviga- 
ble for vessels of upward of 100 tons. The largest ship canal in 
Europe is the great North Holland canal, completedin 1825 — 125 
feet wide at the water surface, 31 feet wide at the bottom, and has a 
depth of 20 feet; it extends from Amsterdam to the Helder, 51 
miles. The Caledonia canal in Scotland, has a total length of 60 
miles, including 3 lakes. The Suez canal is 88 miles long, of 
which 66 miles are actual canal. The Erie canal is 3503^ miles 
loug; the Ohio canal, Cleveland to Portsmouth, 332 ; the Miami 
and Erie, Cincinnati to Toledo, 291 ; the Wabash and Erie, Evans- 
ville to the Ohio line, 374. 

Formula for Telling a GirPs Age. 

Girls of a marriageable age do not like to tell how old they are ; 
but you can find out by following the subjoined instructions, the 
young lady doing the figuring : Tell her to put down the number 
of the month in which she was born, then to multiply it by 2, then 
to add 5 then to multiply it by 50, then to add her age, then to sub- 
tract 365, then to add 115, then tell her to tell you the amount she 
has left. The two figures tc the right will tell you her age, and the 
remainder the month of her birth. For example, the amount is 
822 ; she is 22 years old and was born in the eighth month, 
(August.) Try it. 

Estimating Measures. 

A pint of water weighs nearly i lb., and is equal to about 27 cubic 
inches, or a square box 3 inches long, 3 inches wide and 3 inches 
deep. 

A quart of water weighs nearly 2 lbs., and is equal to a square 
box of about 4x4 inches and 3^2 inches deep. 

A gallon of water weighs from 8 to 10 lbs., according to the size 
of the gallon, and is equal to a box 6x6 inches square and 6, 7 or 
7)^ inches deep. 

A peck is equal to a box 8x8 inches square and 8 inches deep. 

A bushel almost fills a box 12 x 12 inches square and 24 inches 
deep, or 2 cubic feet. 

A cubic foot of water weighs nearly 64 lbs., (more correctly, 62K 
lbs.,) and contains from 7 to 8 gallons, according to the kind of 
gallons used. 

A barrel of water almost fills a box 2x2 feet square and i}i feet 
deep, or 6 cubic feet. 

Petroleum barrels contain 40 gallons, or nearly 5 cubic feet. 

How to Measure Corn or Hay. 

This rule will apply to a crib of any size or kind. Two cubic 
feet of good sound, dry corn in the ear will make a bushel of 
shelled corn. To get, then, the quantity of shelled corn in a crib, 
of corn in the ear, measure the length, breadth and height of the 
crib inside of the rail; multiply the length by the breadth and the 
product by the height; then divide the product by two, and you 
have the number of bushels of shelled corn in the crib. 

To find the number of bushels of apples, potatoes, etc., in a bin, 
multiply the lengfh, breadth and thickness together, and this pro- 
duct by 8, and point off one figure in the product for decimals. 

To find the amount of hay in a mow, allow 512 cubic feet for a 
ton, and it will come out very generally correct. 

236 



COMPENDIUM OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 



Signs of the Tongue. 

The tongue is the indicator of the system. A white coated tongue 
indicates febrile disturbance ; a brown, moist tongue indicates dis- 
ordered digestion or overloaded passages; a brown, dry tongue 
indicates depressed vitality, as in typhoid conditions and blood 
poisoning; a red, moist tongue indicates debility, as from exhaust- 
ing discharges; a red, dry tongue indicates pyrexia, or any in- 
flammatory fever; a " strawberry " tongue, with prominent papil- 
lae, indicates scarlet fever, or rotheln; a red, glazed tongue indi- 
cates debility, with want of assimilative power of digestion ; a 
tremulous, flabby tongue indicates delirium tremens; hesitancy in 
protruding the tongue indicates concussion of the brain. 



Carrying Capacity of 


a Ten-ton 


Freight Car. 


Whiskey, 


60 barrels. 


Lumber, 


6,000 feet. 


Salt, 


70 '* 


Barley, 


300 bushels. 


Lime, 


70 ** 


Wheat, 


340 »' 


Flour, 


90 " 


Flaxseed, 


360 '' 


Eggs, 


130 to 160 *' 


Apples, 


370 " 


Flour, 


200 sacks. 


Corn, 


400 " 


Wood, 


6 cords. 


Potatoes, 


430 " 


Cattle, 


18 to 20 head. 


Oats, 


680 " 


Hogs, 


50 to 60 ** 


Bran, 


1,000 " 


Sheep, 


80 to 100 " 


Butter, 


20,000 pounds. 



How to Start a 

Take the horse out of the shaft 
circle till he is giddy ; you will not 



Balky Horse. 

:s and make him go round in a 
have to do it more than twice. 



Mason and Dixon's Line. 

A name given to the southern boundary line of the Free State 
of Pennsylvania which formerly separated it from the Slave 
States of Maryland and Virginia. It was run — with the excep- 
tion of about twenty-two miles — by Charles Mason and Jeremiah 
Dixon, two English mathematicians and surveyors, between 
Nov. 15, 1763, and Dec. 26, 1767. During the excited debate in 
Congress in 1820, on the question of excluding slavery from Mis- 
souri, the eccentric John Randolph of Roanoke made great use of 
this phrase, which was caught up and re-echoed by every news- 
paper in the land, and thus gained a celebrity which it still retains. 

The President's Salary. 

The sum of $36,064 is given to the President in addition to his 
salary of $50,000, to pay the salaries of his subordinates and clerks. 
His private secretary is paid $3,250, his assistant private secretary 
$2,250, his stenographer $1,800, five messengers, each, $1,200, a 
steward $1,800, two door keepers, each $1,200, four other clerks at 
good salaries, one telegraph operator, two ushers, $1,200 and 
$1,400, a night usher, $1,200, a watchman J900, and a man who 
takes care of the fires who receives $864 a year. In addition to 
this, there is given him $8,000 for incidental expenses, such as 
stationery, carpets, and the care of the presidential stables. And 
under another heading there is given him nearly $40,000 more. 
Of this $12,500 is for repairs and refurnishing the white house, 
$2,500 is for fuel, $4,000 is for the greenhouse, $i5,roo is for gas, 
matches and the stable. The white house, all told, costs the 
country in connection with the President, considerably over 
^125,000 a year. 

Railway Signal Code. 

^ One whistle signifies ''down brakes." Two whistles signify 
' "" ^ ' " Three whistles signify "back up.'' Continued 

237 



"off brakes.' 



COMPENDIUM OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 



whistles signify "danger." Rapid, short whistles "a cattle 
alarm." A sweeping parting of the hands on the level with the 
eyes, signifies "go ahead." Downward motion of the hands with 
extended arms, signifies "stop." Beckoning motion of one hand, 
signifies " back." Red flag waved up the track, signifies 
"danger." Red flag stuck up by the roadside, signifies "danger 
ahead." Red flag carried on a locomotive, signifies "an engine 
following." Red flag hoisted at a station, is a signal to "stop." 
Lanterns at night raised and lowered vertically, is a signal "to 
start." Lanterns swung at right angles across the track, means 
"stop." Lanterns swung in a circle, signifies " back the train." 

Results of Saving Small Amounts of Money. 

The following shows how easy it is to accumulate a fortune, 
provided proper steps are taken. The table shows what would 
be the result at the end of fifty years by saving a certain amount 
each day and putting it at interest at the rate of six per cent : 

Daily Savings. The Result. Daily Savings. The Result. 



One cent, 


$ 950 


Sixty cents. 


$57,024 


Ten cents. 


9,504 


Seventy cents, 


66,528 


Twenty cents. 


19,006 


Eighty cents. 


76,032 


Thirty'cents, 


28,512 


Ninety cents, 


85,537 


Forty cents, 


38,015 


One dollar. 


95,041 


Fifty cents, 


47,520 


Five dollars, 


475,208 



Nc;arly every person wastes enough in twenty or thirty years, 
which, if saved and carefully invested, would make a family quite 
independent ; but the principle of small savings has been lost 
sight of in the general desire to become wealthy. 

Legal Holidays in the United States. 

New Year's Day — January i — In all States and Territories, 
exept Arkansas, Delaware, Georgia, Kentucky, Maine, Massa- 
chusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina, South Carolina and 
Rhode Island. 

Anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans — January 8 — 
In Louisiana. 

Lincoln's Birthday — February 12 — In Louisiana. 

Washington's Birthday — February 22d — In all States and 
Territories, except Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, 
Indiana, Kansas, Maine, Missouri, North Carolina, Ohio, Texas, 
Oregon and Tennessee. 

Shrove Tuesday — in Louisiana, and cities of Mobile, 

Montgomery and Selma, Alabama. 

Anniversary of Texan Independence — March 2 — In Texas. 

Firemen's Anniversary — March 4 — In Louisiana. 

Good Friday — April 15 — In Florida, Louisiana, Minnesota 
and Pennsylvania. 

Memorial Day — April 26 — In Georgia. 

Battle of San Jacinto— April 21 — In Texas. 

Decoration Day — May 30 — In Colorado, Maine, Vermont, 
Connecticut, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Rhode 
Island, New York, Pennsylvania and District of Columbia. 

Fourth of July — In all States and Territories. 

General Election Day — Generally on Tuesday after first Mon- 
day in November— In California, Maine, Missouri, New Jersey, 
New York, Oregon, South Carolina and Wisconsin. 

Thanksgiving Day — Usually last Thursday in November — 
and Fast days whenever appointed by the President — are le^al 
holidays in all States and Territories. 

Christmas Day — In all the States and Territories. 

238 



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